Characterization of stable and transient cavitation bubbles in a milliflow reactor using a multibubble sonoluminescence quenching technique

Ultrasound triggered organic mechanoluminescence materials

Ultrasound induced organic mechanoluminescence materials have become one of the focal topics in wireless light sources since they exhibit high spatiotemporal resolution, biocompatibility and excellent tissue penetration depth. These properties promote great potential in ultrahigh sensitive bioimaging with no background noise and noninvasive nanodevices. Recent advances in chemistry, nanotechnology and biomedical research are revolutionizing ultrasound induced organic mechanoluminescence. Herein, we try to summarize some recent researches in ultrasound induced mechanoluminescence that use various materials design strategies based on the molecular conformational changes and cycloreversion reaction. Practical applications, like noninvasive bioimaging and noninvasive optogenetics, are also presented and prospected.

Exploiting Shock Waves to Trigger the Anticancer Sonodynamic Activity of 5-Aminolevulinc Acid-Derived Protoporphyrin IX on In Vitro 2D and 3D Cancer Models

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) is a noninvasive method for cancer treatment based on selective activation of a sonosensitiser by ultrasound (US), which results in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cancer cell death. SDT uses a similar approach to photodynamic therapy (PDT), but can overcome the main drawback of PDT, i.e., poor tissue penetration of light. This research work investigated the anticancer effect of SDT on various two- (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) in vitro tumour models, using PDT as a reference treatment. Sonodynamic experiments were performed with pulsed US, specifically with shock waves (SW) and the prodrug 5-aminolevulinic acid (Ala), which is converted—at the mitochondrial level—into the sonosensitiser protoporphyrin IX (PPIX). SW-mediated PPIX sonodynamic activation resulted in a significant decrease in cell proliferation, especially on human fibrosarcoma (HT-1080) cells, where PPIX accumulation was higher compared to human melanoma (A2058) and neuroblastoma (SH-SY5 Y) cells. Moreover, SW-mediated SDT showed significant ROS generation, cell line-dependent in its amount, probably due to differences in Ala-induced PPIX synthesis. In all cancer cell lines, apoptosis was highlighted as the main cancer cell death pathway determined by SW-mediated SDT, along with significant cytochrome c release, and a consequent increase in DNA damage. The efficacy of SDT with SW and Ala in halting cancer cell proliferation was also confirmed in 3D cancer spheroids. The present study suggests that SW-mediated SDT is a valuable approach to slow down tumour proliferation, thus opening an innovative scenario in cancer treatment.

Effects of sub-atmospheric pressure and dissolved oxygen concentration on lesions generated in ex vivo tissues by high intensity focused ultrasound

Background

Acoustic cavitation plays an important role in the medical treatment using high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU), but unnecessarily strong cavitation also could deform the morphology and enlarge the size of lesions. It is known that the increase of ambient hydrostatic pressure (P_stat) can control the acoustic cavitation. But the question of how the decrease of P_stat and dissolved oxygen concentration (DOC) influence the strength of cavitation has not been thoroughly answered. In this study, we aimed to investigate the relationship among the P_stat, DOC and the strength of cavitation.

Methods

Ex vivo bovine liver tissues were immersed in degassed water with different DOC of 1.0 mg/L, 1.5 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L. Ultrasound (US) of 1 MHz and the spatial and temporal average intensity (I_sata) of 6500 W/cm² was used to expose two groups of in vitro bovine livers for 2 s; one group was under atmospheric pressure (P_stat = 1 bar) and the other was under sub-atmospheric pressure (P_stat = 0.1 bar). Acoustic cavitation was detected by a passive cavitation detector (PCD) during the exposure process. Echo signals at the focal zone of HIFU were monitored by B-mode ultrasound imaging before and after exposure. The difference between two pressure groups was tested using paired sample t-test. The difference among different DOC groups was evaluated by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Results

The results demonstrated a significant difference of broadband acoustic emissions from the cavitation bubbles, echo signals on B-mode image, morphology of lesions under various conditions of ambient pressure and DOC. The lesion volume in tissue was increased with the increase of ambient pressure and DOC.

Conclusion

Cavitation could be suppressed through sub-atmospheric pressure and low DOC level in liver tissue, which could provide a method of controlling cavitation in HIFU treatment to avoid unpredictable lesions.

Ultrasound as a Promising Tool for the Green Extraction of Specialized Metabolites from Some Culinary Spices

Spices are a popular food of plant origin, rich in various phytochemicals and recognized for their numerous properties. The aim of the study was to evaluate the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity, as well as the content of specialized metabolites, of aqueous extracts of three spice species--garlic (Allium sativum L.), ginger (Zingiber officinalle L.) and turmeric (Curcuma longa L.)--prepared by green extraction methods. Ultrasound treatment increased the chromaticity parameter b value of turmeric and ginger extracts, thus indicating a higher yellow color predominantly due to curcuminoids characteristic of these species. Ultrasound-assisted extraction significantly increased the content of total soluble solids, phenolic compounds, total carotenoids and vitamin C. The temperature of the system was also an important factor, with the highest (70 °C) conditions in ultrasound-assisted extraction having a positive effect on thermolabile compounds (vitamin C, phenolics, total carotenoids). For example, turmeric extract treated with ultrasound at 70 °C had up to a 67% higher vitamin C content and a 69.4% higher total carotenoid content compared to samples treated conventionally at the same temperature, while ginger extracts had up to 40% higher total phenols. All different concentrations of spice extracts were not sufficient for complete inhibition of pathogenic bacterial strains of Salmonella, L. monocytogenes and S. aureus; however, only garlic extracts had an effect on slowing down the growth and number of L. monocytogenes colonies. Spice extracts obtained by ultrasonic treatment contained a significantly higher level of bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity, suggesting that the extracts obtained have significant nutritional potential and thus a significant possibility for phytotherapeutic uses.

Microfluidics for Two-Dimensional Nanosheets: A Mini Review

Since the discovery of graphene, there has been increasing interest in two-dimensional (2D) materials. To realize practical applications of 2D materials, it is essential to isolate mono- or few-layered 2D nanosheets from unexfoliated counterparts. Liquid phase exfoliation (LPE) is the most common technique to produce atomically thin-layered 2D nanosheets. However, low production yield and prolonged process time remain key challenges. Recently, novel exfoliation processes based on microfluidics have been developed to achieve rapid and high yield production of few-layer 2D nanosheets. We review the primary types of microfluidic-based exfoliation techniques in terms of the underlying process mechanisms and the applications of the 2D nanosheets thus produced. The key challenges and future directions are discussed in the above context to delineate future research directions in this exciting area of materials processing.

Optimizing graphene production in ultrasonic devices

In this work, we investigate the efficiency of graphene production from graphite by ultrasonic-induced exfoliation under different operational conditions. An ultrasonic bath and an ultrasonic horn tip were used, to show how the graphene production efficiency depends on the acoustic intensity and cavitation mechanism using graphite crystal with different initial sizes and characteristic lengths. Operational variables such as geometry, location and type of vessel containing the liquid phase, were also explored. All of them have effect on the cavitation process and directly influence the amount of graphene obtained. Remarkably, we found that the initial size of the graphite crystals has a marked impact in exfoliation process. Based on the above arguments we propose a combined protocol with a specific sequence to maximize the amount of graphene obtained.

Sonochemical degradation of pesticides in aqueous solution: investigation on the influence of operating parameters and degradation pathway – a systematic review

Along with the wide production, consumption and disposal of pesticides in the world, the concerns over their human and environmental health impacts are rapidly growing.

Enhancing pharmaceutical crystallization in a flow crystallizer with ultrasound: Anti-solvent crystallization

Continuous crystallization is a fast growing application domain in the pharmaceutical industry. Application of ultrasound has been proven to have positive effects like reduction in induction time and Metastable Zone Width (MSZW) in both batch and flow systems. Further understanding of flow-based sonocrystallization is required to achieve industrial level scale up. This work investigates the sonocrystallization of pharmaceutical compounds in a tubular flow crystallizer. Acetyl Salicylic Acid (ASA-Aspirin) is used as a model compound with ethanol and water as solvent and anti-solvent, respectively. Experiments were conducted in silent and sonicated conditions to study the MSZW. Ultrasound made it possible to achieve crystallization within the crystallizer which was not possible in silent conditions, under the tested conditions. Continuous crystallization was achieved at as low as 48 wt% of anti-solvent and crystallization was already seen at a supersaturation of 1.02. In some experiments, temperature rise with ultrasound caused the crystals to re-dissolve within the channels. Better crystallization - no re-dissolution - was achieved by using low ultrasonic power without any loss in the yield. Particle sizes of product crystals were in the range of 4-46 µm. In conclusion, ultrasound was highly effective in enabling anti-solvent crystallization of a pharmaceutical compound in a tubular flow crystallizer.

A review on possible mechanisms of sonocrystallisation in solution

Sonocrystallisation is the application of ultrasound to the crystallisation process. The benefits obtained by sonication have been widely studied since the beginning of the 20th century and so far it is clear that ultrasound can be a very useful tool for enhancing crystallisation and controlling the properties of the final product. Crystal size, polymorphs, purity, process repeatability and lower induction time are only some of the advantages of sonocrystallisation. Even though the effects of sonication on crystallisation are quite clear, the physical explanation of the phenomena involved is still lacking. Is the presence of cavitation necessary for the process? Or is only the bubbles surface responsible for enhancing crystallisation? Are the strong local increases in pressure and temperature induced by cavitation the main cause of all the observed effects? Or is it the strong turbulence induced in the system instead? Many questions still remain and can only be appreciated with an understanding of the complexity behind the individual processes of crystallisation and acoustic cavitation. Therefore, this review will first summarise the theories behind crystallisation and acoustic cavitation, followed by a description of all the current proposed sonocrystallisation mechanisms, and conclude with an overview on future prospects of sonocrystallisation applications.

A parametric review of sonochemistry: Control and augmentation of sonochemical activity in aqueous solutions

In this review the phenomenon of ultrasonic cavitation and associated sonochemistry is presented through system parameters. Primary parameters are defined and considered, namely; pressure amplitude, frequency and reactor design; including transducer type, signal type, vessel-transducer ratio, liquid flow, liquid height, liquid temperature and the presence of a reflective plate. Secondary parameters are similarly characterised and involve the use of gas and liquid additives to influence the chemical and physical environments. Each of the parameters are considered in terms of their effect on bubble characteristics and subsequent impact on sonochemical activity. Evidence suggests that via parametric variation, the reaction products and efficiency may be controlled. This is hypothesised to occur through manipulation of the structural stability of the bubble.

The effects of ultrasound on micromixing

The Villermaux-Dushman reaction is a widely used technique to study micromixing efficiencies with and without sonication. This paper shows that ultrasound can interfere with this reaction by sonolysis of potassium iodide, which is excessively available in the Villermaux-Dushman solution, into triiodide ions. Some corrective actions, to minimize this interference, are proposed. Furthermore, the effect of ultrasonic frequency, power dissipation, probe tip surface area and stirring speed on micromixing were investigated. The power and frequency seem to have a significant impact on micromixing in contrast to the stirring speed and probe tip surface area. Best micromixing was observed with a 24kHz probe and high power intensities. Experiments with different frequencies but a constant power intensity, emitter surface, stirring speed, cavitation bubble type and reactor design showed best micromixing for the highest frequency of 1135kHz. Finally, these results were used to test the power law model of Rahimi et al. This model was not able to predict micromixing accurately and the addition of the frequency, as an additional parameter, was needed to improve the simulations.

Influence of dissolved gases on sonochemistry and sonoluminescence in a flow reactor

In the present work, the influence of gas addition is investigated on both sonoluminescence (SL) and radical formation at 47 and 248 kHz. The frequencies chosen in this study generate two distinct bubble types, allowing to generalize the conclusions for other ultrasonic reactors. In this case, 47 kHz provides transient bubbles, while stable ones dominate at 248 kHz. For both bubble types, the hydroxyl radical and SL yield under gas addition followed the sequence: Ar>Air>N2>>CO2. A comprehensive interpretation is given for these results, based on a combination of thermal gas properties, chemical reactions occurring within the cavitation bubble, and the amount of bubbles. Furthermore, in the cases where argon, air and nitrogen were bubbled, a reasonable correlation existed between the OH-radical yield and the SL signal, being most pronounced under stable cavitation at 248 kHz. Presuming that SL and OH originate from different bubble populations, the results indicate that both populations respond similarly to a change in acoustic power and dissolved gas. Consequently, in the presence of non-volatile pollutants that do not quench SL, sonoluminescence can be used as an online tool to qualitatively monitor radical formation.