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Abdallah Mouhamed A, Lee J, Kim DH, Song CS. Comparative protective efficacy of a newly generated live recombinant thermostable highly attenuated vaccine rK148/GVII-F using a single regimen against lethal NDV GVII.1.1. Avian Pathol 2024; 53:14-32. [PMID: 38009206 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2023.2263395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS A thermostable, safe, and effective NDV GVII recombinant vaccine was generated.Fusion gene replacement with GVII did not affect GI K148/08 virus thermostability.Strain rK148/GVII-F provided adequate protection against a lethal NDV challenge.Oropharyngeal shedding was significantly reduced on post-challenge days 5 and 7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amal Abdallah Mouhamed
- Department of Avian Diseases, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza, Egypt
- Department of Avian Disease and Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiho Lee
- Department of Avian Disease and Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | | | - Chang-Seon Song
- Department of Avian Disease and Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- KHAV Co. Ltd., Seoul, Republic of Korea
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2
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Angeliya L, Kristianingrum YP, Asmara W, Wibowo MH. Genetic characterization and distribution of the virus in chicken embryo tissues infected with Newcastle disease virus isolated from commercial and native chickens in Indonesia. Vet World 2022; 15:1467-1480. [PMID: 35993083 PMCID: PMC9375212 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2022.1467-1480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral infectious disease that affects commercial and native chickens, resulting in economic losses to the poultry industry. This study aimed to examine the viral strains circulating in commercial and native chickens by genetic characterization and observe the distribution of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in chicken embryonic tissue. Materials and Methods: ND was detected using a quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Genetic characterization of the fusion (F) and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) genes from the eight NDVs was performed using specific primers. The sequence was compared with that of other NDVs from GenBank and analyzed using the MEGA-X software. The distribution of NDV in chicken embryos was analyzed based on lesions and the immunopositivity in immunohistochemistry staining. Results: Based on F gene characterization, velogenic NDV strains circulating in commercial and native chickens that showed varying clinical symptoms belonged to genotype VII.2. Lentogenic strains found in chickens without clinical symptoms were grouped into genotype II (unvaccinated native chickens) and genotype I (vaccinated commercial chickens). Amino acid variations in the HN gene, namely, the neutralization epitope and antigenic sites at positions 263 and 494, respectively, occurred in lentogenic strains. The NDV reaches the digestive and respiratory organs, but in lentogenic NDV does not cause significant damage, and hence embryo death does not occur. Conclusion: This study showed that velogenic and lentogenic NDV strains circulated in both commercial and native chickens with varying genotypes. The virus was distributed in almost all organs, especially digestive and respiratory. Organ damage in lentogenic infection is not as severe as in velogenic NDV. Further research is needed to observe the distribution of NDV with varying pathogenicity in chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza Angeliya
- Veterinary Science Doctoral Study Program, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia; Disease Investigation Center Lampung, Jalan Untung Suropati Bandar Lampung, Lampung, 35142, Indonesia
| | | | - Widya Asmara
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
| | - Michael Haryadi Wibowo
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
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Turan N, Ozsemir C, Yilmaz A, Cizmecigil UY, Aydin O, Bamac OE, Gurel A, Kutukcu A, Ozsemir K, Tali HE, Tali BH, Yilmaz SG, Yaramanoglu M, Tekelioğlu BK, Ozsoy S, Richt JA, Iqbal M, Yilmaz H. Identification of Newcastle disease virus subgenotype VII.2 in wild birds in Turkey. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:277. [PMID: 32771001 PMCID: PMC7414739 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02503-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs) can spread across continents via migratory birds. Hence, we investigated the frequency of NDV in both non-migratory and birds migrating on the Black Sea-Mediterranean flyway, in Istanbul, Turkey. Birds were trapped using nets placed around the Kucukcekmece lake Avcilar, Istanbul, in spring seasons of 2016 and 2018. In total, 297 birds belonging to 42 different species were trapped, categorized according to species and sex, and flocked oropharyngeal swabs were collected. In addition, flocked swabs were also collected from 115 mallards caught by hunters around Edirne and from 207 birds which had been treated in the Veterinary Faculty of Istanbul university-Cerrahpasa. Tissue samples were taken from dead wild birds brought by public to Veterinary Faculty. A total of 619 flocked oropharyngeal swabs were pooled into 206 samples. RNA was extracted from swabs and tissue samples. Real-time RT-PCR prob. assay was used to detect NDV-RNA in samples. RESULTS There was no amplification in real time RT-PCR in samples taken from wild birds caught by traps. However, amplification of NDV-F gene was observed in oropharyngeal swabs taken from 2 waterfowls (Common Moorhen and Mallard), and in tissue samples taken from 2 little owls and 1 common kestrel. Sequencing and phylogenetic analyses of these 5 samples for NDV-F gene showed great similarity with NDV subgenotype VII.2 viruses. Analysis also showed that there is a high similarity with the F gene sequences previously reported from Turkey in 2012 and as well as the sequences from neighbouring countries Bulgaria and Georgia and geographically close country such as Pakistan. Although the strains found in this study are closely related, there is a relatively small degree of molecular divergence within 543 bp of F gene of the Turkish NDV isolate and strains detected in Israel, Pakistan, Iran, United Arab Emirates and Belgium. CONCLUSIONS Our findings revealed the presence of subgenotype VII.2 of NDVs in wild birds in north west of Turkey and demonstrated some degree of molecular evolution when compared to the earlier NDV-VII.2 isolate in Turkey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuri Turan
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Cemal Ozsemir
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Aysun Yilmaz
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Utku Y Cizmecigil
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ozge Aydin
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ozge Erdogan Bamac
- Department of Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Aydin Gurel
- Department of Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ahmet Kutukcu
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Kubra Ozsemir
- Department of Wild Animals and Ecology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - H Emre Tali
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Besim H Tali
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Semaha G Yilmaz
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Mehmetcan Yaramanoglu
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - B Kaan Tekelioğlu
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Cukurova, Ceyhan, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Serhat Ozsoy
- Department of Wild Animals and Ecology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Juergen A Richt
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, USA
| | - Munir Iqbal
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Huseyin Yilmaz
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Istanbul-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Abd El-Hamid HS, Shafi ME, Albaqami NM, Ellakany HF, Abdelaziz NM, Abdelaziz MN, Abd El-Hack ME, Taha AE, Alanazi KM, Elbestawy AR. Sequence analysis and pathogenicity of Avian Orthoavulavirus 1 strains isolated from poultry flocks during 2015-2019. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:253. [PMID: 32698866 PMCID: PMC7374864 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02470-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Newcastle disease (ND) causes severe economic losses in poultry industry worldwide. Egyptian poultry industry suffered from severe economic losses since the isolation of Velogenic Newcastle disease virus (vNDV) genotype VIId in 2011 and up till now despite the use of different vaccination programs. So, this study aimed to isolate and characterize the vNDV from a total of 120 poultry flocks from ten provinces in the Egyptian Delta region with a history of respiratory manifestation, high mortalities or a decrease in egg production between 2015 and 2019. Seventy-three samples’ allantoic fluid (73/120, 60.8%) were positive for hemagglutination with chicken RBCs. These samples were submitted to molecular examination using qRT-PCR specific primers for AOAV-1, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI-H5), low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI-H9) and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Results Fifty samples (50/120: 41.6%) were confirmed positive for AOAV-1, based on genetic analysis of matrix and fusion protein. The co-infection rate of other respiratory viral diseases examined was 1.6, 14.1, and 4.1%, for HPAI-H5, LPAI-H9, and IBV, respectively. Biologically, the intracerebral pathogenicity index of ten selected AOAV-1 isolates ranged from 1.70 to 1.98, which indicated the velogenic nature of these isolates. All the sixteen sequenced isolates were AOAV-1 genotype VII.1.1. The full F gene sequence of six examined AOAV-1 VII.1.1 isolates contained the seven neutralizing epitopes, and the glycosylation motif of six-potential sites for N linked glycosylation at residues 85, 191, 366, 447, 471, and 541. Conclusion It could be concluded that the high prevalence of AOAV-1 genotype VII.1.1 in the Egyptian chicken flocks despite the intensive vaccination with live and killed ND vaccines, as all the 16 isolates tested were belonged to this genotype. Homologous vaccination is badly needed to control and reduce the spread of AOAV-1 genotype VII.1.1infection in Egyptian poultry flocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hatem S Abd El-Hamid
- Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, El Beheira, 22511, Egypt
| | - Manal E Shafi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Zoology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Najah M Albaqami
- Department of Biological Sciences, Zoology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hany F Ellakany
- Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, El Beheira, 22511, Egypt.
| | - Naglaa M Abdelaziz
- Reference Laboratory for veterinary Quality control on Poultry production (RLQP), Animal Health Research Institute, ARC, El Dokky, Giza, Egypt
| | - Mohamed N Abdelaziz
- Reference Laboratory for veterinary Quality control on Poultry production (RLQP), Animal Health Research Institute, ARC, El Dokky, Giza, Egypt
| | - Mohamed E Abd El-Hack
- Department of Poultry, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Egypt.
| | - Ayman E Taha
- Department of Animal Husbandry and Animal Wealth Development, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University, Edfina, 22758, Egypt
| | - Khalid M Alanazi
- Zoology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed R Elbestawy
- Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, El Beheira, 22511, Egypt
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Liu YP, Chang CY, Lee F, Chiou CJ, Tsai HJ. Phylogenetic analysis of avian paramyxoviruses 1 isolated in Taiwan from 2010 to 2018 and evidence for their intercontinental dispersal by migratory birds. J Vet Med Sci 2020; 82:1366-1375. [PMID: 32655100 PMCID: PMC7538311 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.20-0161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian paramyxovirus 1 (APMV-1), synonymous with Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a worldwide viral agent that infects various avian species and responsible for outbreaks of Newcastle disease. In this study, 40 APMV-1 isolates collected from poultry, migratory birds, and resident birds during 2010-2018 in Taiwan were characterized genetically. Our phylogenetic analysis of complete fusion protein gene of the APMV-1 isolates revealed that 39 of the 40 Taiwanese isolates were closely related to APMV-1 of class I genotype 1 or class II genotypes I, VI or VII, and one isolate belonged to a group that can be classified as a novel genotype 2 within class I. The fusion protein gene sequences of a branch (former 1d) nested within class I sub-genotype 1.2 were closely related to those isolated from wild birds in North America. Viruses placed in class II sub-genotype VI.2.1.1.2.1 and sub-genotype VI.2.1.1.2.2 were the dominant pigeon paramyxovirus 1 (PPMV-1) circulating in the last decade in Taiwan. All the Newcastle disease outbreak-associated isolates belonged to class II sub-genotype VII.1.1, which was mainly responsible for the present epizootic of Newcastle disease in Taiwan. We conclude that at least five sub/genotypes of APMV-1 circulate in multiple avian host species in Taiwan. One genetically divergent group of APMV-1 should be considered as a novel genotype within class I. Migratory birds may play an important role in intercontinental spread of lentogenic APMV-1 between Eurasia and North America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Pin Liu
- Animal Health Research Institute, 376 Chung-Cheng Road, Tamsui District, New Taipei City 25158, Taiwan, ROC.,Graduate Institute of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chiu-Yen Chang
- Animal Health Research Institute, 376 Chung-Cheng Road, Tamsui District, New Taipei City 25158, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Fan Lee
- Animal Health Research Institute, 376 Chung-Cheng Road, Tamsui District, New Taipei City 25158, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chwei-Jang Chiou
- Animal Health Research Institute, 376 Chung-Cheng Road, Tamsui District, New Taipei City 25158, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsiang-Jung Tsai
- Graduate Institute of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, ROC
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Han Q, Gao X, Wu P, Xiao S, Wang X, Liu P, Tong L, Hao H, Zhang S, Dang R, Yang Z. Re-evaluation the immune efficacy of Newcastle disease virus vaccine in commercial laying chickens. Res Vet Sci 2016; 111:63-66. [PMID: 28043009 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2016.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/17/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infection causes serious problems in laying chickens, like reducing egg production, increasing rate of abnormal eggs in spite of strict vaccination in layer farms program. A new evaluation system is needed to show complete protection of the immunization in laying chickens based on the egg-laying performance, rather than clinical signs of the disease. In this study, laying chickens with different anti-NDV HI (hemagglutination-inhibition) antibody titer after vaccination were divided into different groups. These chickens were then challenged with field isolated highly virulent NDV strains. Results showed that the chickens in low HI titers group (5log2 to 8log2) and medium HI titers group (9log2 to 11log2) had atypical symptoms, produced abnormal eggs, and shed virus. Whereas, with HI titers≥12log2, the chickens were completely protected, and did not show symptoms, or produce abnormal eggs or shed virus. Morbidity, positive viral shedding rate and abnormal egg-rate decreased with increase in pre-challenge HI antibody titer. Our result suggested that 12log2 is the threshold of the HI antibody in providing complete protection to laying chickens under field condition, and protective efficacy is correlated with HI antibody titer. This study provides a valuable reference for the vaccination and control of ND in poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingsong Han
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China; Department of Animal Science, Wenzhou Vocational College of Scienc & Technology, Wenzhou 325006, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Xiaolong Gao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Pengpeng Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Sa Xiao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Xinglong Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Peng Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Lina Tong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Huafang Hao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Shuxia Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Ruyi Dang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China
| | - Zengqi Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, PR China.
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Ahmadi E, Pourbakhsh SA, Ahmadi M, Mardani K, Talebi A. Phylogenetic characterization of virulent Newcastle disease viruses isolated during outbreaks in northwestern Iran in 2010. Arch Virol 2016; 161:3151-60. [PMID: 27542379 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-016-3021-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The northwest of Iran shares long borders with three neighboring countries; therefore, it is considered one of the main entry portals of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) into the country. Ten virulent NDVs were recovered from 19 poultry farms of various prefectures in northwestern Iran during Newcastle disease outbreaks in 2010. The isolates were genotypically analyzed using an F-gene-specific reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay. The amplified F gene (nucleotides 189-1666) sequences of the NDV isolates were compared phylogenetically with those of previously published strains in GenBank. All of the NDV isolates belonged to genotype VIIb and were closely related to some isolates from Iran, Russia, and Sweden. Therefore, it can be postulated that these isolates evolved from previously reported strains. The velogenic viruses carried the motif (112)R-R-Q-K-R/F(117) at the F0 cleavage site and a unique substitution of (190)L→F which had never been reported in any NDV genotype VIIb isolate. They shared high sequence similarity with each other but were distinct from current NDV vaccines and NDV strains reported from other countries. This information is fundamental for improving the efficacy of controlling strategies and vaccine development for NDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Ahmadi
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sanandaj, Iran.
| | - Seyed Ali Pourbakhsh
- Department of Poultry Diseases, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Karaj, Iran
| | - Malahat Ahmadi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, West Azarbaijan, Iran
| | - Karim Mardani
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, West Azarbaijan, Iran
| | - Alireza Talebi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, West Azarbaijan, Iran
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Construction of a camelid VHH yeast two-hybrid library and the selection of VHH against haemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein of the Newcastle disease virus. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:39. [PMID: 26920806 PMCID: PMC4769559 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0664-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Newcastle disease (ND), which is caused by the Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is one of the most important avian diseases in poultry. Since its discovery in 1926, ND has caused great economic losses to the world poultry industry and remains a threat to chickens and wild birds. Although a stringent vaccination policy is widely adopted to control ND, ND outbreaks still occur, and virulent NDV is sporadically isolated from chickens and wild birds. To study the pathogenesis of ND and provide tools to prevent its prevalence, novel antibody fragments should be developed. The variable domains of the heavy chain of the heavy-chain antibodies (VHH) are the smallest naturally occurring antibodies derived from camelid heavy-chain antibodies. The comparatively small size, high affinity, high solubility, low immunogenicity and ability to bind epitopes inaccessible to conventional antibodies of VHH make them ideal candidates for a considerable number of therapeutic and biotechnological applications. However, an anti-NDV VHH has not been reported to date. RESULTS In this study, a VHH yeast two-hybrid library was constructed from NDV vaccine immunized C. bactrianus, and seven VHH fragments to the haemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) protein of NDV were successfully screened and characterized for the first time. These selected VHH clones were all expressed as soluble protein in E. coli. ELISA, dot blot, immunocytochemistry and pull down results showed that the screened VHHs could interact with NDV virion, among which five had neutralizing activity. In addition, the seven VHHs could inhibit the haemagglutination activity of different NDV strains. CONCLUSIONS We constructed an NDV-immunized VHH yeast two-hybrid library and screened and characterized seven VHHs targeting NDV HN protein for the first time. The seven VHHs may have great potential for NDV diagnosis, pathogenesis and therapeutics.
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Nath B, Barman NN, Kumar S. Molecular characterization of Newcastle disease virus strains isolated from different outbreaks in Northeast India during 2014–15. Microb Pathog 2016; 91:85-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2015.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Elmardi N, Bakheit M, Khalafalla A. Phylogenetic analysis of some Newcastle disease virus isolates from the Sudan. Open Vet J 2016; 6:89-97. [PMID: 27419101 PMCID: PMC4935765 DOI: 10.4314/ovj.v6i2.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to amplify 1412 bp of the fusion protein gene (F gene) of four Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates; two velogenic (TY-1/90 and DIK-90) and two lentogenic isolates (Dongla 88/1 and GD.S.1). Following sequencing, nucleotide sequences were annotated and 894 bp were compared phylogenetically with those from strains previously reported in the Sudan and the virus strains published on the GenBank. It could be demonstrated that TY-1/90 and DIK-90 strains belong to the genotype VI of NDV and are in close genetic relationship to sub- genotype VIb. TY-1/90 and DIK-90 strains were observed to be genetically unrelated to the earlier Sudanese isolates of 1970/80s and the late of 2000s suggesting a different origin. The close genetic relationship to the European and African pigeon paramyxovirus type 1 (PPMV-1) suggests a common ancestor. Dongola, GD.S.1 strains were classified into genotype II that comprises non-pathogenic lentogenic NDV strains. The present genetic classification of NDV isolates of the Sudan provides valuable information on genotypes of NDV. Further molecular epidemiological investigations of the recent outbreaks of Newcastle disease in the Sudan are needed in order to improve the efficiency of control strategies and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- N.A. Elmardi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat, 1334, Khartoum North, Sudan
| | - M.A. Bakheit
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat, 1334, Khartoum North, Sudan
| | - A.I. Khalafalla
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat, 1334, Khartoum North, Sudan
- Corresponding Author: Abdelmalik Ibrahim Khalafalla. Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat, 1334 Khartoum North, Sudan. E-mail:
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Jaganathan S, Ooi PT, Phang LY, Allaudin ZNB, Yip LS, Choo PY, Lim BK, Lemiere S, Audonnet JC. Observation of risk factors, clinical manifestations and genetic characterization of recent Newcastle Disease Virus outbreak in West Malaysia. BMC Vet Res 2015; 11:219. [PMID: 26293577 PMCID: PMC4546084 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-015-0537-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Newcastle disease virus remains a constant threat in commercial poultry farms despite intensive vaccination programs. Outbreaks attributed to ND can escalate and spread across farms and states contributing to major economic loss in poultry farms. Results Phylogenetic analysis in our study showed that eleven of the samples belonged to genotype VIId. All farms were concurrently positive with two immunosuppressive viruses; Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) and Marek’s Disease Virus (MDV). Amino acid sequence analysis confirmed that eleven of the samples had sequence motifs for velogenic/mesogenic strains; three were lentogenic. Conclusion In conclusion, no new NDV genotype was isolated from the 2011 NDV outbreak. This study suggests that the presence of other immunosuppressive agents such as IBD and MDV could have contributed to the dysfunction of the immune system of the chickens, causing severe NDV outbreaks in 2011. Risk factors related to biosecurity and farm practices appear to have a significant role in the severity of the disease observed in affected farms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seetha Jaganathan
- Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. .,Asia-Pacific Special Nutrients Sdn. Bhd, Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. .,Vet Food Agro Diagnostic Sdn. Bhd., Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Peck Toung Ooi
- Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Lai Yee Phang
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biotechnology & Molecular Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | | | - Lai Siong Yip
- Rhone Ma Malaysia (M) Sdn Bhd, Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Pow Yoon Choo
- Rhone Ma Malaysia (M) Sdn Bhd, Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Ban Keong Lim
- Rhone Ma Malaysia (M) Sdn Bhd, Lot 18B, Jalan 241, Section 51A, 46100, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Stephane Lemiere
- Merial S.A.S., Bio R&D, 254, Rue Marcel Merieux, 69007, Lyon, France.
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12
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Rasoli M, Yeap SK, Tan SW, Moeini H, Ideris A, Bejo MH, Alitheen NBM, Kaiser P, Omar AR. Alteration in lymphocyte responses, cytokine and chemokine profiles in chickens infected with genotype VII and VIII velogenic Newcastle disease virus. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 37:11-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2013.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Umali DV, Ito H, Suzuki T, Shirota K, Katoh H, Ito T. Molecular epidemiology of Newcastle disease virus isolates from vaccinated commercial poultry farms in non-epidemic areas of Japan. Virol J 2013; 10:330. [PMID: 24209870 PMCID: PMC3831826 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Newcastle Disease (ND) is a highly contagious and economically devastating disease of poultry. At present, limited molecular epidemiological data are available regarding the causes of ND outbreaks in vaccinated commercial poultry farms. Knowing the genomic characteristics of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infecting commercial poultry operations in spite of vaccination might give important insights on the infection dynamics of these viruses. In addition, molecular analyses at the subgenotype level and studies on the relationship of Japanese NDVs with other isolates from around the world are lacking. Therefore, in the present study, a molecular epidemiological investigation was conducted to characterize nine NDVs isolated from vaccinated commercial poultry flocks in five different Prefectures in non-epidemic areas of Japan between 1969 and 2002. Methods Nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic studies were performed to characterize the complete fusion (F)-protein gene, 3-prime end of the nucleoprotein (NP)-gene and 5-prime end of the RNA dependent RNA polymerase (L)-gene. Sequence data were compared with 180 NDV strains from GenBank representing different NDV genotypes and subgenotypes from different regions of the world at different time periods. Deduced amino acids were analyzed for homologies, recombination and mutation. Recombination events were estimated using Recombination Detection Program (RDP) version 3.44. Phylogenetic trees were constructed to determine evolutionary relationships among strains. Results Mean death time (MDT: 48-56 hr), Intracerebral Pathogenicity Index (ICPI: 1.7-1.9) and deduced amino acid sequences of the F0 proteolytic cleavage site (112RRQKR116) revealed that all nine field isolates were velogenic. Phylogenetic analysis showed that these isolates could be classified into two genetic lineages and three sublineages namely genotypes VIa (lineage 4a), VId (lineage 4d) and VIId (lineage 5d). No recombination events were observed but a point mutation in one of the neutralizing epitope of the F-protein was identified in the field isolates from Japan. Conclusions All field isolates from vaccinated commercial poultry in non-epidemic areas of Japan were part of much bigger outbreaks in provinces and regions and, in some cases, continents. In general, four ND panzootics occurred in Japan and that these outbreaks were mostly characterized by co-circulation of genetically distinct virus lineages due to involvements of infected wild birds. The point mutation identified in the field isolates from Japan may be due to escape from vaccine pressure. The identification of such mutation may be useful for future site-directed mutagenesis to understand the dynamics of NDV infection in vaccinated chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Toshihiro Ito
- Avian Zoonoses Research Center, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama, Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan.
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de Almeida RS, Hammoumi S, Gil P, Briand FX, Molia S, Gaidet N, Cappelle J, Chevalier V, Balança G, Traoré A, Grillet C, Maminiaina OF, Guendouz S, Dakouo M, Samaké K, Bezeid OEM, Diarra A, Chaka H, Goutard F, Thompson P, Martinez D, Jestin V, Albina E. New avian paramyxoviruses type I strains identified in Africa provide new outcomes for phylogeny reconstruction and genotype classification. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76413. [PMID: 24204623 PMCID: PMC3799739 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND) is one of the most lethal diseases of poultry worldwide. It is caused by an avian paramyxovirus 1 that has high genomic diversity. In the framework of an international surveillance program launched in 2007, several thousand samples from domestic and wild birds in Africa were collected and analyzed. ND viruses (NDV) were detected and isolated in apparently healthy fowls and wild birds. However, two thirds of the isolates collected in this study were classified as virulent strains of NDV based on the molecular analysis of the fusion protein and experimental in vivo challenges with two representative isolates. Phylogenetic analysis based on the F and HN genes showed that isolates recovered from poultry in Mali and Ethiopia form new groups, herein proposed as genotypes XIV and sub-genotype VIf with reference to the new nomenclature described by Diel's group. In Madagascar, the circulation of NDV strains of genotype XI, originally reported elsewhere, is also confirmed. Full genome sequencing of five African isolates was generated and an extensive phylogeny reconstruction was carried out based on the nucleotide sequences. The evolutionary distances between groups and the specific amino acid signatures of each cluster allowed us to refine the genotype nomenclature.
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15
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Characterization of Malaysian velogenic NDV strain AF2240-I genomic sequence: a comparative study. Virus Genes 2013; 46:431-40. [DOI: 10.1007/s11262-012-0874-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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16
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Newcastle disease virus outbreaks: vaccine mismatch or inadequate application? Vet Microbiol 2012; 160:17-22. [PMID: 22655976 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2011] [Revised: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND) is one of the most important diseases of poultry, and may cause devastating losses in the poultry industry worldwide. Its causative agent is Newcastle disease virus (NDV), also known as avian paramyxovirus type 1. Many countries maintain a stringent vaccination policy against ND, but there are indications that ND outbreaks can still occur despite intensive vaccination. It has been argued that this may be due to antigenic divergence between the vaccine strains and circulating field strains. Here we present the complete genome sequence of a highly virulent genotype VII virus (NL/93) obtained from vaccinated poultry during an outbreak of ND in the Netherlands in 1992-1993. Using this strain, we investigated whether the identified genetic evolution of NDV is accompanied by antigenic evolution. In this study we show that a live vaccine that is antigenically adapted to match the genotype VII NL/93 outbreak strain does not provide increased protection compared to a classic genotype II live vaccine. When challenged with the NL/93 strain, chickens vaccinated with a classic vaccine were completely protected against clinical disease and mortality and virus shedding was significantly reduced, even with a supposedly suboptimal vaccine dose. These results suggest that it is not antigenic variation but rather poor flock immunity due to inadequate vaccination practices that may be responsible for outbreaks and spreading of virulent NDV field strains.
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Maminiaina OF, Gil P, Briand FX, Albina E, Keita D, Andriamanivo HR, Chevalier V, Lancelot R, Martinez D, Rakotondravao R, Rajaonarison JJ, Koko M, Andriantsimahavandy AA, Jestin V, Servan de Almeida R. Newcastle disease virus in Madagascar: identification of an original genotype possibly deriving from a died out ancestor of genotype IV. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13987. [PMID: 21085573 PMCID: PMC2981552 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 10/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In Madagascar, Newcastle disease (ND) has become enzootic after the first documented epizootics in 1946, with recurrent annual outbreaks causing mortality up to 40%. Four ND viruses recently isolated in Madagascar were genotypically and pathotypically characterised. By phylogenetic inference based on the F and HN genes, and also full-genome sequence analyses, the NDV Malagasy isolates form a cluster distant enough to constitute a new genotype hereby proposed as genotype XI. This new genotype is presumably deriving from an ancestor close to genotype IV introduced in the island probably more than 50 years ago. Our data show also that all the previously described neutralising epitopes are conserved between Malagasy and vaccine strains. However, the potential implication in vaccination failures of specific amino acid substitutions predominantly found on surface-exposed epitopes of F and HN proteins is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patricia Gil
- CIRAD, BIOS Department, UMR CMAEE, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | - Djénéba Keita
- CIRAD, BIOS Department, UMR CMAEE, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - M. Koko
- Antananarivo University Madagascar, Antananarivo, Madagascar
| | | | - Véronique Jestin
- Anses-Ploufragan Plouzané Laboratory, VIPAC Unit, Ploufragan, France
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HANIEH H, NARABARA K, PIAO M, GERILE C, ABE A, KONDO Y. Modulatory effects of two levels of dietary Alliums on immune response and certain immunological variables, following immunization, in White Leghorn chickens. Anim Sci J 2010; 81:673-80. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1740-0929.2010.00798.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Molecular characterization of partial fusion gene and C-terminus extension length of haemagglutinin-neuraminidase gene of recently isolated Newcastle disease virus isolates in Malaysia. Virol J 2010; 7:183. [PMID: 20691110 PMCID: PMC2927529 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-7-183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2009] [Accepted: 08/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Newcastle disease (ND), caused by Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a highly contagious disease of birds and has been one of the major causes of economic losses in the poultry industry. Despite routine vaccination programs, sporadic cases have occasionally occurred in the country and remain a constant threat to commercial poultry. Hence, the present study was aimed to characterize NDV isolates obtained from clinical cases in various locations of Malaysia between 2004 and 2007 based on sequence and phylogenetic analysis of partial F gene and C-terminus extension length of HN gene. Results The coding region of eleven NDV isolates fusion (F) gene and carboxyl terminal region of haemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) gene including extensions were amplified by reverse transcriptase PCR and directly sequenced. All the isolates have shown to have non-synonymous to synonymous base substitution rate ranging between 0.081 - 0.264 demonstrating presence of negative selection. Analysis based on F gene showed the characterized isolates possess three different types of protease cleavage site motifs; namely 112RRQKRF117, 112RRRKRF117 and 112GRQGRL117 and appear to show maximum identities with isolates in the region such as cockatoo/14698/90 (Indonesia), Ch/2000 (China), local isolate AF2240 indicating the high similarity of isolates circulating in the South East Asian countries. Meanwhile, one of the isolates resembles commonly used lentogenic vaccine strains. On further characterization of the HN gene, Malaysian isolates had C-terminus extensions of 0, 6 and 11 amino acids. Analysis of the phylogenetic tree revealed that the existence of three genetic groups; namely, genotype II, VII and VIII. Conclusions The study concluded that the occurrence of three types of NDV genotypes and presence of varied carboxyl terminus extension lengths among Malaysian isolates incriminated for sporadic cases.
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Rui Z, Juan P, Jingliang S, Jixun Z, Xiaoting W, Shouping Z, Xiaojiao L, Guozhong Z. Phylogenetic characterization of Newcastle disease virus isolated in the mainland of China during 2001–2009. Vet Microbiol 2010; 141:246-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2009] [Revised: 09/10/2009] [Accepted: 09/22/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Ke GM, Yu SW, Ho CH, Chu PY, Ke LY, Lin KH, Tsai YC, Liu HJ, Lin MY. Characterization of newly emerging Newcastle disease viruses isolated during 2002-2008 in Taiwan. Virus Res 2009; 147:247-57. [PMID: 19941916 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2009.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2009] [Revised: 11/15/2009] [Accepted: 11/17/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
To elucidate the epidemiological relationships between ND outbreaks and genetic lineages, a portion of the F gene (535 bp) and the full-length HN gene (1922 bp) of recent Taiwanese NDVs isolated in 2002-2008 was amplified by reverse transcription (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced. Only a portion of above amplified PCR products of the F and HN genes (374 and 1713 bp) and their deduced amino acid residues were compared with the other 60 NDVs retrieved from GenBank. Most (29/30) of the recent Taiwanese isolates were clustered in subgenotype VIIe while only one isolate was classified as subgenotype VIIc. All the 29 isolates of subgenotype VIIe were further subclassified and termed provisionally as sub-subgenotypes VIIe2 (13 isolates), VIIe3 (5 isolates), and VIIe4 (11 isolates). The sub-subgenotype VIIe2 isolates possessing the motif (112)R-R-Q-K-R-F(117) and amino acid residue substitutions at positions 23 (L to F) and 90 (T to A) were collected during 2002-2005. The sub-subgenotype VIIe3 isolates possessing the motif (112)R-R-K-K-R-F(117) and amino acid residue substitutions at positions 74 (E to G) and 75 (A to G) within epitopes and 114 (Q to K) within cleavage site of F protein were collected during 2003-2006. The sub-subgenotype VIIe4 isolates possessing the motif (112)R-R-Q-K-R-F(117) and amino acid residue substitutions at positions 23 (L to F), 26 (I to T), and 90 (T to A) were collected during 2007-2008. All the NDV isolates in this study exhibited a high intra-cerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI), they were all classified as velogenic type of NDVs. The sub-subgenotype VIIe2 and VIIe4 viruses are now dominant and have been implicated in most of the recent ND outbreaks in Taiwan. Phylogenetic analysis of these isolates revealed that they may have evolved from previously reported local strains (VIIe1). This finding is essential for improving the disease control strategies and development of vaccines for ND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guan-Ming Ke
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan, ROC
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Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of Newcastle disease virus genotypes isolated in Malaysia between 2004 and 2005. Arch Virol 2009; 155:63-70. [PMID: 19898736 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-009-0540-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2009] [Accepted: 09/28/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Sequence analysis of the fusion (F) gene of eight Malaysian NDV isolates showed that all the isolates were categorized as velogenic viruses, with the F cleavage site motif (112)R-R-Q-K-R(116) or (112)R-R-R-K-R(116) at the C-terminus of the F(2) protein and phenylalanine (F) at residue 117 at the N-terminus of the F(1) protein. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all of the isolates were grouped in two distinct clusters under sub-genotype VIId. The isolates were about 4.8-11.7% genetically distant from sub-genotypes VIIa, VIIb, VIIc and VIIe. When the nucleotide sequences of the eight Malaysian isolates were compared phylogenetically to those of the old published local isolates, it was found that genotype VIII, VII, II and I viruses exist in Malaysia and caused sporadic infections. It is suggested that genotype VII viruses were responsible for most of the outbreaks in recent years.
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