1
|
Reichard MV, Sanders TL, Weerarathne P, Meinkoth JH, Miller CA, Scimeca RC, Almazán C. Cytauxzoonosis in North America. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10091170. [PMID: 34578202 PMCID: PMC8469551 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10091170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytauxzoonosis is an emerging tick-borne disease of domestic and wild felids produced by infection of Cytauxzoon felis, an apicomplexan protozoan similar to Theileria spp. Transmitted by Amblyomma americanum, lone star tick, and Dermacentor variabilis, American dog tick, infection of C. felis in cats is severe, characterized by depression, lethargy, fever, hemolytic crisis, icterus, and possibly death. Cytauxzoonosis occurs mainly in the southern, south-central, and mid-Atlantic United States in North America, in close association with the distribution and activity of tick vectors. Infection of C. felis, although severe, is no longer considered uniformly fatal, and unless moribund, every attempt to treat cytauxzoonosis cats should be made. Herein we review cytauxzoonosis, including its etiology, affected species, its life cycle and pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis, and epidemiology, emphasizing clinical pathology findings in cats infected with this important emerging tick-borne disease in North and South America.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mason V. Reichard
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA; (T.L.S.); (P.W.); (J.H.M.); (C.A.M.); (R.C.S.)
- Correspondence: (M.V.R.); (C.A.)
| | - Tiana L. Sanders
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA; (T.L.S.); (P.W.); (J.H.M.); (C.A.M.); (R.C.S.)
| | - Pabasara Weerarathne
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA; (T.L.S.); (P.W.); (J.H.M.); (C.A.M.); (R.C.S.)
| | - James H. Meinkoth
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA; (T.L.S.); (P.W.); (J.H.M.); (C.A.M.); (R.C.S.)
| | - Craig A. Miller
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA; (T.L.S.); (P.W.); (J.H.M.); (C.A.M.); (R.C.S.)
| | - Ruth C. Scimeca
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA; (T.L.S.); (P.W.); (J.H.M.); (C.A.M.); (R.C.S.)
| | - Consuelo Almazán
- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Avenida de las Ciencias S/N, Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, Mexico
- Correspondence: (M.V.R.); (C.A.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Saleh MN, Allen KE, Lineberry MW, Little SE, Reichard MV. Ticks infesting dogs and cats in North America: Biology, geographic distribution, and pathogen transmission. Vet Parasitol 2021; 294:109392. [PMID: 33971481 PMCID: PMC9235321 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2021.109392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A diverse array of ixodid and argasid ticks infest dogs and cats in North America, resulting in skin lesions, blood loss, and disease. The ticks most commonly found on pets in this region are hard ticks of the genera Amblyomma, Dermacentor, Ixodes, and Rhipicephalus, as well as the more recently established Haemaphysalis longicornis. Soft tick genera, especially Otobius and Ornithodoros, are also reported from pets in some regions. In this review, we provide a summary of the complex and diverse life histories, distinct morphologies, and questing and feeding behaviors of the more common ticks of dogs and cats in North America with a focus on recent changes in geographic distribution. We also review pathogens of dogs and cats associated with the different tick species, some of which can cause serious, potentially fatal disease, and describe the zoonotic risk posed by ticks of pets. Understanding the natural history of ticks and the maintenance cycles responsible for providing an ongoing source of tick-borne infections is critical to effectively combatting the challenges ticks pose to the health of pets and people.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meriam N Saleh
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States
| | - Kelly E Allen
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States.
| | - Megan W Lineberry
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States
| | - Susan E Little
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States
| | - Mason V Reichard
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wang JL, Li TT, Liu GH, Zhu XQ, Yao C. Two Tales of Cytauxzoon felis Infections in Domestic Cats. Clin Microbiol Rev 2017; 30:861-885. [PMID: 28637681 PMCID: PMC5608878 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00010-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytauxzoonosis is an emerging infectious disease that affects wild felids as well as the domestic cat; it is caused by the apicomplexan protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Cytauxzoon. Cytauxzoonfelis is the species of major concern, whose transmission occurs via the bite of an infected tick. Cytauxzoonosis of the domestic cat has historically been considered uniformly fatal, with a short course of illness, and most domestic cats die within 9 to 15 days postinfection. However, increasing evidence of domestic cats surviving C. felis infection suggests the existence of different strains with various levels of pathogenicity. Although wild felids are considered natural reservoirs for this parasite, a number of studies suggest that domestic cats that have survived nonlethal infections may serve as an additional reservoir. The current article comprehensively reviews the parasite and its life cycle, geographic distribution, genetic variability, and pathogenesis, as well as host immunology and the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of infection in the domestic cat. This information should provide a basis for better understanding the parasite as well as the pathogenesis of the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Ting-Ting Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Guo-Hua Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Chaoqun Yao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Predicting the potential environmental suitability for Theileria orientalis transmission in New Zealand cattle using maximum entropy niche modelling. Vet Parasitol 2016; 224:82-91. [PMID: 27270395 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2015] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The tick-borne haemoparasite Theileria orientalis is the most important infectious cause of anaemia in New Zealand cattle. Since 2012 a previously unrecorded type, T. orientalis type 2 (Ikeda), has been associated with disease outbreaks of anaemia, lethargy, jaundice and deaths on over 1000 New Zealand cattle farms, with most of the affected farms found in the upper North Island. The aim of this study was to model the relative environmental suitability for T. orientalis transmission throughout New Zealand, to predict the proportion of cattle farms potentially suitable for active T. orientalis infection by region, island and the whole of New Zealand and to estimate the average relative environmental suitability per farm by region, island and the whole of New Zealand. The relative environmental suitability for T. orientalis transmission was estimated using the Maxent (maximum entropy) modelling program. The Maxent model predicted that 99% of North Island cattle farms (n=36,257), 64% South Island cattle farms (n=15,542) and 89% of New Zealand cattle farms overall (n=51,799) could potentially be suitable for T. orientalis transmission. The average relative environmental suitability of T. orientalis transmission at the farm level was 0.34 in the North Island, 0.02 in the South Island and 0.24 overall. The study showed that the potential spatial distribution of T. orientalis environmental suitability was much greater than presumed in the early part of the Theileria associated bovine anaemia (TABA) epidemic. Maximum entropy offers a computer efficient method of modelling the probability of habitat suitability for an arthropod vectored disease. This model could help estimate the boundaries of the endemically stable and endemically unstable areas for T. orientalis transmission within New Zealand and be of considerable value in informing practitioner and farmer biosecurity decisions in these respective areas.
Collapse
|
5
|
Sherrill MK, Cohn LA. Cytauxzoonosis: Diagnosis and treatment of an emerging disease. J Feline Med Surg 2016; 17:940-8. [PMID: 26486980 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x15610681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PRACTICAL RELEVANCE Cytauxzoonosis is a life-threatening hematoprotozoal disease with a rapidly progressive clinical course. Once considered a rare disease only relevant to a small geographic area, it is now recognized in more than about a third of the United States. The geographic range seems likely to increase with expansion of the range of the vector tick. CLINICAL CHALLENGES Both disease diagnosis and treatment offer challenges. The acute illness is often recognized by characteristic parasitic cellular inclusions, but illness may occur before parasites can be identified, and parasitic inclusions may persist long after illness has resolved. Also, while infection was once considered nearly uniformly fatal, subclinical infections are now recognized. Disease prognosis has improved for many cats through implementation of new therapies, but some pathogens are resistant to these therapies and death from disease is still common. Currently, prevention strategies are limited to ectoparasite control. GLOBAL IMPORTANCE Cytauxzoonosis caused by Cytauxzoon felis is limited to the Americas, and is especially problematic in southeastern and south central USA. However, other Cytauxzoon species have been recognized in Europe and Asia. AUDIENCE This review is aimed at veterinary practitioners and focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of cytauxzoonosis. Disease management is of crucial importance in endemic regions. Furthermore, the expanding geographic range of infection, and the possibility of parasite identification in chronically infected cats with a travel history, make understanding cytauxzoonosis relevant in non-endemic regions as well. EVIDENCE BASE The authors draw on evidence from prospective clinical trials, experimental infections, retrospective clinical studies and case reports, as well as their own personal experience with the diagnosis and treatment of cytauxzoonosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Leah A Cohn
- 900 E Campus Drive, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
MacNeill AL, Barger AM, Skowronski MC, Lanka S, Maddox CW. Identification of Cytauxzoon felis infection in domestic cats from southern Illinois. J Feline Med Surg 2015; 17:1069-72. [DOI: 10.1177/1098612x14567158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Objectives The objective of this study was to document Cytauxzoon felis infection in domestic cats from southern Illinois. Methods Diagnosis of cytauxzoonosis was based upon clinical signs of illness and detection of piroplasms within erythrocytes on peripheral blood smears or schizonts in internal organs consistent with Cytauxzoon infection. Additionally, genomic DNA was extracted from histologic sections of splenic tissue from two cats. Results The internal transcribed spacer region-1 (ITS-1) and ITS-2 of the C felis genome were successfully sequenced, confirming infection with the organism. Conclusions and relevance Sequence analysis of C felis DNA isolated from histologic lesions in two domestic cats from southern Illinois show either mixed infection or possible heterozygosity (cytosine and thymine) in ITS-2 at the position equivalent to nucleotide 76 (thymine) in the most commonly isolated C felis ITS-2 sequence. Identification of C felis infection in domestic cats from southern Illinois is a critical finding that raises awareness of this often fatal disease process in an area of the USA where, previously, the disease was only anecdotally reported.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy L MacNeill
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Anne M Barger
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
| | | | - Saraswathi Lanka
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Carol W Maddox
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Rizzi TE, Reichard MV, Cohn LA, Birkenheuer AJ, Taylor JD, Meinkoth JH. Prevalence of Cytauxzoon felis infection in healthy cats from enzootic areas in Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:13. [PMID: 25566776 PMCID: PMC4297400 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-014-0618-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Infection with Cytauxzoon felis in domestic cats can cause fever, lethargy, depression, inappetence, icterus, and often death. With a high mortality rate, cytauxzoonosis was historically considered a fatal disease. Within the last 15 years, cats with or without treatment have been recognized as chronically infected survivors of C. felis infection. Our objective was to determine the prevalence of C. felis in healthy domestic cats from Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. Methods Infection with C. felis was determined using DNA extracted from anticoagulated whole blood and PCR amplification using C. felis-specific primers. Chi-square, Fisher’s exact tests, and odds ratios were used to compare proportions of cats infected with C. felis. Results Blood samples were collected from 902 healthy domestic cats between October 2008 and April 2012. DNA from Cytauxzoon felis was detected in 56 of 902 (6.2%; 95% confidence interval, 4.7–7.9) samples. The highest prevalence of C. felis infection (15.5%; 10.3–21.7) was observed in cats from Arkansas, followed by cats from Missouri (12.9%; 6.1–24.0), and cats from Oklahoma (3.4%; 2.2–5.1). Cats sampled in Arkansas and Missouri were 5.1 and 4.2, respectively, times more likely to be chronically infected with C. felis than cats from Oklahoma. Conclusions Infection with C. felis is common in domestic cats through Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. The high prevalence of C. felis reported herein suggests that infected domestic cats are likely reservoirs of infection for naive felines. The high prevalence of C. felis substantiates the importance for the use of approved acaricides on cats to prevent cytauxzoonosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Theresa E Rizzi
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
| | - Mason V Reichard
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
| | - Leah A Cohn
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA.
| | - Adam J Birkenheuer
- College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
| | - Jared D Taylor
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
| | - James H Meinkoth
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Raghavan RK, Almes K, Goodin DG, Harrington JA, Stackhouse PW. Spatially heterogeneous land cover/land use and climatic risk factors of tick-borne feline cytauxzoonosis. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2014; 14:486-95. [PMID: 24978652 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2013.1496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Feline cytauxzoonosis is a highly fatal tick-borne disease caused by a hemoparasitic protozoan, Cytauxzoon felis. This disease is a leading cause of mortality for cats in the Midwestern United States, and no vaccine or effective treatment options exist. Prevention based on knowledge of risk factors is therefore vital. Associations of different environmental factors, including recent climate were evaluated as potential risk factors for cytauxzoonosis using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). METHODS There were 69 cases determined to be positive for cytauxzoonosis based upon positive identification of C. felis within blood film examinations, tissue impression smears, or histopathologic examination of tissues. Negative controls totaling 123 were selected from feline cases that had a history of fever, malaise, icterus, and anorexia but lack of C. felis within blood films, impression smears, or histopathologic examination of tissues. Additional criteria to rule out C. felis among controls were the presence of regenerative anemia, cytologic examination of blood marrow or lymph node aspirate, other causative agent diagnosed, or survival of 25 days or greater after testing. Potential environmental determinants were derived from publicly available sources, viz., US Department of Agriculture (soil attributes), US Geological Survey (land-cover/landscape, landscape metrics), and NASA (climate). Candidate variables were screened using univariate logistic models with a liberal p value (0.2), and associations with cytauxzoonosis were modeled using a global multivariate logistic model (p<0.05). Spatial heterogeneity among significant variables in the study region was modeled using a geographically weighted regression (GWR) approach. RESULTS Total Edge Contrast Index (TECI), grassland-coverage, humidity conditions recorded during the 9(th) week prior to case arrival, and an interaction variable, "diurnal temperature range × percent mixed forest area" were significant risk factors for cytauxzoonosis in the study region. TECI and grassland areas exhibited significant regional differences in their effects on cytauxzoonosis outcome, whereas others were uniform. CONCLUSIONS Land-cover areas favorable for tick habitats and climatic conditions that favor the tick life cycle are strong risk factors for feline cytauxzoonosis. Spatial heterogeneity and interaction effects between land-cover and climatic variables may reveal new information when evaluating risk factors for vector-borne diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ram K Raghavan
- 1 Kansas State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|