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Wang Z, Li K, Maskey AR, Huang W, Toutov AA, Yang N, Srivastava K, Geliebter J, Tiwari R, Miao M, Li X. A small molecule compound berberine as an orally active therapeutic candidate against COVID-19 and SARS: A computational and mechanistic study. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21360. [PMID: 33749932 PMCID: PMC8250068 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202001792r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The novel coronavirus disease, COVID-19, has grown into a global pandemic and a major public health threat since its breakout in December 2019. To date, no specific therapeutic drug or vaccine for treating COVID-19 and SARS has been FDA approved. Previous studies suggest that berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, has shown various biological activities that may help against COVID-19 and SARS, including antiviral, anti-allergy and inflammation, hepatoprotection against drug- and infection-induced liver injury, as well as reducing oxidative stress. In particular, berberine has a wide range of antiviral activities such as anti-influenza, anti-hepatitis C, anti-cytomegalovirus, and anti-alphavirus. As an ingredient recommended in guidelines issued by the China National Health Commission for COVID-19 to be combined with other therapy, berberine is a promising orally administered therapeutic candidate against SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. The current study comprehensively evaluates the potential therapeutic mechanisms of berberine in preventing and treating COVID-19 and SARS using computational modeling, including target mining, gene ontology enrichment, pathway analyses, protein-protein interaction analysis, and in silico molecular docking. An orally available immunotherapeutic-berberine nanomedicine, named NIT-X, has been developed by our group and has shown significantly increased oral bioavailability of berberine, increased IFN-γ production by CD8+ T cells, and inhibition of mast cell histamine release in vivo, suggesting a protective immune response. We further validated the inhibition of replication of SARS-CoV-2 in lung epithelial cells line in vitro (Calu3 cells) by berberine. Moreover, the expression of targets including ACE2, TMPRSS2, IL-1α, IL-8, IL-6, and CCL-2 in SARS-CoV-2 infected Calu3 cells were significantly suppressed by NIT-X. By supporting protective immunity while inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines; inhibiting viral infection and replication; inducing apoptosis; and protecting against tissue damage, berberine is a promising candidate in preventing and treating COVID-19 and SARS. Given the high oral bioavailability and safety of berberine nanomedicine, the current study may lead to the development of berberine as an orally, active therapeutic against COVID-19 and SARS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen‐Zhen Wang
- Academy of Chinese Medical ScienceHenan University of Chinese MedicineZhengzhouChina
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
| | - Kun Li
- Department of PediatricsUniversity of IowaIowa CityIAUSA
| | - Anish R. Maskey
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
| | - Weihua Huang
- Department of PathologyNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
| | | | - Nan Yang
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
- General Nutraceutical TechnologyElmsfordNYUSA
| | - Kamal Srivastava
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
- General Nutraceutical TechnologyElmsfordNYUSA
| | - Jan Geliebter
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
- Department of OtolaryngologySchool of MedicineNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
| | - Raj Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
- Department of OtolaryngologySchool of MedicineNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
| | - Mingsan Miao
- Academy of Chinese Medical ScienceHenan University of Chinese MedicineZhengzhouChina
| | - Xiu‐Min Li
- Department of Microbiology & ImmunologyNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
- Department of OtolaryngologySchool of MedicineNew York Medical CollegeValhallaNYUSA
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Bhukya PL, C VK, Lole KS. Transcriptome analysis of hepatoma cells transfected with Basal Core Promoter (BCP) and Pre-Core (PC) mutant hepatitis B virus full genome construct. J Gen Virol 2021; 102. [PMID: 33595430 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections with Basal Core Promoter (BCP) (A1762T/G1764A) and Pre-Core (PC) (G1896A) hepatitis B virus HBeAg mutants are associated with severe liver injury. We analysed host cell responses in HepG2/C3A, hepatoma cells transfected with infectious clones developed from genotype D wild type (WT) and BCP/PC mutant (MT) viruses isolated from an acute resolved and an acute liver failure hepatitis B case respectively. Cells transfected with MT virus construct showed ~55 % apoptosis and with WT ~30 % apoptosis at 72 h. To determine possible roles of HBe and HBx proteins in apoptosis, we cloned these genes and co-transfected cells with WT+HBe/HBx or MT+HBe/HBx constructs. Co-expression of HBe protein improved cell viability significantly in both WT and MT virus constructs, indicating an important role of HBe in protecting cells. RNA sequencing analysis carried out at 12 and 72 h post-transfection with WT virus construct showed enrichment of innate/adaptive immune response-activating signal transduction, cell survival and amino acid/nucleic acid biosynthetic pathways at 12 and 72 h. By contrast, MT virus construct showed enrichment in host defence pathways and some biosynthetic pathways at the early time point (12 h), and inflammatory response, secretary granule, regulation of membrane potential and stress response regulatory pathways at the late time point (72 h). There was a significant down-regulation of genes involved in endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial functions and metabolism with MT construct and this possibly led to induction of apoptosis in cells. Considering rapid apoptotic changes in cells transfected with MT construct, it can be speculated that HBeAg plays a crucial role in cell survival. It enhances induction of metabolic and synthetic pathways and facilitates management of cellular stress that is induced due to hepatitis B virus infection/replication.
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Elizalde MM, Speroni M, Campos RH, Flichman DM. Hepatitis B Virus X Gene Differentially Modulates Subgenotype F1b and F4 Replication. Viruses 2019; 11:v11070655. [PMID: 31323763 PMCID: PMC6669721 DOI: 10.3390/v11070655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is classified into ten genotypes and numerous subgenotypes (sgt). In particular, sgt F1b and sgt F4, native of Latin America, have been associated with differences in clinical and virological characteristics. Hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx) is a multifunctional regulatory protein associated with the modulation of viral transcription and replication. In this work, we analyzed the role of the X gene and the encoded X protein in sgtF1b and sgtF4 replication. Transfection with HBx deficient genomes revealed remarkable differences in the replicative capacity of sgtF1b and sgtF4 mutants. The silencing of HBx increased sgtF1b X(-) transcription and replication by more than 2.5 fold compared to the wild type variant, while it decreased sgtF4 X(-) transcription and replication by more than 3 fold. Trans-complementation of HBx restore sgtF1b and sgtF4 wild type transcription and replication levels. In addition, transfection with chimeric variants, carrying wild type (F1b/XF4 and F4/XF1b) or mutated (F1b/X(-)F4 and F4/X(-)F1b) X gene of one sgt in the backbone of the other sgt, showed that the nucleotide sequence of the X gene, that includes regulatory elements that modulate pgRNA transcription, was responsible for the disparity observed between sgtF1b X(-) and sgtF4 X(-). These results showed that sgtF1b and sgtF4 X gene play a central role in regulating HBV transcription and replication, which eventually lead to a common purpose, to reach wild type replication levels of sgtF1b and sgtF4 viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Mercedes Elizalde
- Cátedra de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires 1113, Argentina.
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires 1425, Argentina.
| | - Micaela Speroni
- Cátedra de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires 1113, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires 1425, Argentina
| | - Rodolfo Héctor Campos
- Cátedra de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires 1113, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires 1425, Argentina
| | - Diego Martín Flichman
- Cátedra de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires 1113, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires 1425, Argentina
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Torres MC, Civetta E, D'amico C, Barbini L. Hepatitis B virus in Mar del Plata, Argentina: Genomic characterization and evolutionary analysis of subgenotype F1b. J Med Virol 2019; 91:791-802. [PMID: 30570771 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The aim is to describe the molecular epidemiology and perform a genomic characterization of hepatitis B virus (HBV) circulating in Mar del Plata and to identify the origin and diversification patterns of the most prevalent genotype. The S gene and the region encompassing the X gene, basal core promoter (BCP), and precore (preC) was analyzed in 56 samples. They were genotyped as: 80% F1b, 9% A2, 7% D3, and 2% D1. A recombinant F4/D2 genome was detected. The double substitution G1764A/A1762T at the BCP (reduced HBeAg expression) was found in 20% F1b, 2% A2, 2% D1, and 2% D3 samples. A unique D3 presented the G1896A substitution at the preC (HBeAg negative phenotype). A 13% of the samples showed mutations at the HBsAg "a" immunodeterminant (escape from neutralizing antibodies). Mutations at the polymerase (antiviral resistance) were found in 52% of the samples. Coalescent analysis of subgenotype F1b, the most prevalent in the city, showed that viral diversification in Mar del Plata started by year 2000. F1b was the most prevalent genotype detected, being a characteristic of actual HBV infections in Mar del Plata. Local HBV exhibit clinically relevant mutations, but a minority of them was shown to be associated to potential vaccination escape or antiviral resistance. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to determine whether any of these mutants could pose a threat to prevention, diagnosis, or treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elida Civetta
- Unidad de Hepatología y Alcoholismo, HIGA Dr. O. Alende, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Claudia D'amico
- Centro de Especialidades Médicas Ambulatorias, Unidad de Hepatología, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Luciana Barbini
- Departamento de Química, FCEyN, UNMdP, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Chen M, Liu X, Hu B, Fan Z, Song Y, Wei H, Qiu R, Xu W, Zhu W, Wang F. Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus Non-structural Protein 6 Induces Apoptosis in Rabbit Kidney Cells. Front Microbiol 2019; 9:3308. [PMID: 30687286 PMCID: PMC6333657 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) is a highly contagious disease caused by rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV). Previous research has shown that RHDV induces apoptosis in numerous cell types, although the molecular mechanisms underlying the apoptosis induced by RHDV are not well understood. One possible factor is non-structural protein 6 (NSP6), a 3C-like protease that plays an important role in processing viral polyprotein precursors into mature non-structural proteins. To fully establish a role for NSP6, the present study examined the effects of ectopic expression of the protein in rabbit (RK13) and human (HeLa and HepG2) cells. We found that NSP6 suppressed cell viability and promoted apoptosis in all three cell types in a dose-dependent manner. We also identified increased caspase-3, -8, and -9 activities in RK13 cell, and an increased Bax to Bcl2 mRNA ratio. Mechanistically, the ability of NSP6 to induce apoptosis was impaired by mutation of the catalytic His27 residue. Our study has shown that RHDV NSP6 can induce apoptosis in host cells and is likely an important contributor to RHDV-induced apoptosis and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengmeng Chen
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Xing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Bo Hu
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhiyu Fan
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Yanhua Song
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Houjun Wei
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Rulong Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Weizhong Xu
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Weifeng Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
| | - Fang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, China
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Sevic I, Elizalde MM, González López Ledesma MM, Flichman DM, Campos RH. Analysis of fitness differences of hepatitis B virus genotypes D and F using a cotransfection assay. Arch Virol 2018; 164:447-455. [PMID: 30417200 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-018-4090-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) circulates as a collection of genetically related variants that evolve throughout the chronic infection. Those viral variants that have the greatest fitness are fixed. We recently showed different fitness for HBV variants involved in two epidemiological situations. To understand these fitness differences better, we determined the levels of extracellular HBV DNA, the synthesis of HBV DNA intermediates, and the expression of HBeAg and HBsAg in transfection and cotransfection assays. Our results show that for the subgenotype (sgt) D1, which has an 8-nucleotide deletion (sgtD1del) and exhibits lower fitness, the levels of extracellular DNA and intracellular replicative intermediates were much lower than with sgtD1wt or sgtD1mut (G1896A), which had higher fitness. In addition, in the cotransfection assay, sgtD1del inhibited sgtD1mut but not sgtD1wt replication. We also found that sgtF1b, which exhibits higher fitness, produces significantly higher levels of both extracellular DNA and intracellular replicative intermediates than does the lower-fitness sgtF4. These results demonstrate a relationship between fitness and the replicative ability of the HBV genome in the transfection assay. In addition, the data obtained by cotransfecting cells with sgtD1del and sgtD1mut provide new information about the impact of simultaneous replication of two viral variants in the same cell system on HBV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ina Sevic
- Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología y Biotecnología, Cátedra de Virología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina. .,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - María Mercedes Elizalde
- Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología y Biotecnología, Cátedra de Virología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Mora González López Ledesma
- Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología y Biotecnología, Cátedra de Virología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Diego Martin Flichman
- Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología y Biotecnología, Cátedra de Virología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Rodolfo Héctor Campos
- Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología y Biotecnología, Cátedra de Virología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Elizalde MM, Pérez PS, Sevic I, Grasso D, Ropolo A, Barbini L, Campos RH, Vaccaro MI, Flichman DM. HBV subgenotypes F1b and F4 replication induces an incomplete autophagic process in hepatocytes: Role of BCP and preCore mutations. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197109. [PMID: 29738548 PMCID: PMC5940199 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotypes and mutants have been associated with differences in clinical and virological characteristics. Autophagy is a cellular process that degrades long-lived proteins and damaged organelles. Viruses have evolved mechanisms to alter this process to survive in host cells. In this work, we studied the modulation of autophagy by the replication of HBV subgenotypes F1b and F4, and the naturally occurring mutants BCP and preCore. HBV subgenotypes F1b and F4 replication induced accumulation of autophagosomes in hepatoma cells. However, no autophagic protein degradation was observed, indicating a blockage of autophagic flux at later stages. This inhibition of autophagy flux might be due to an impairment of lysosomal acidification in hepatoma cells. Moreover, HBV-mediated autophagy modulation was independent of the viral subgenotypes and enhanced in viruses with BCP and preCore naturally occurring mutations. These results contribute to understand the mechanisms by which different HBV variants contribute to the pathogenesis of HBV infections. In addition, this study is the first to describe the role that two highly prevalent naturally occurring mutations exert on the modulation of HBV-induced autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Mercedes Elizalde
- Cátedra de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- * E-mail:
| | - Paula Soledad Pérez
- Cátedra de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ina Sevic
- Cátedra de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Daniel Grasso
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Medicina Molecular, Departamento de Fisiopatología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alejandro Ropolo
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Medicina Molecular, Departamento de Fisiopatología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Luciana Barbini
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Rodolfo Héctor Campos
- Cátedra de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Inés Vaccaro
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Medicina Molecular, Departamento de Fisiopatología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Diego Martín Flichman
- Cátedra de Virología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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