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Xiao XX, Zhang Q, Bai TY, Chen ZX, Wang ZN, Bai JH, Chen L, Liu BW, Wang YZ. Ultrahigh Heat/Fire-Resistant, Mechanically Robust, and Closed-Loop Chemical Recyclable Polycarbonate Enabled by Facile Bond Dissociation Energy Modulation. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024:e2401429. [PMID: 38808805 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202401429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Plastics serve as an essential foundation in contemporary society. Nevertheless, meeting the rigorous performance demands in advanced applications and addressing their end-of-life disposal are two critical challenges that persist. Here, an innovative and facile method is introduced for the design and scalable production of polycarbonate, a key engineering plastic, simultaneously achieving high performance and closed-loop chemical recyclability. The bisphenol framework of polycarbonate is strategically adjusted from the low-bond-dissociation-energy bisphenol A to high-bond-dissociation-energy 4,4'-dihydroxydiphenyl, in combination with the incorporation of polysiloxane segments. As expected, the enhanced bond dissociation energy endows the polycarbonate with an extremely high glow-wire flammability index surpassing 1025 °C, a 0.8 mm UL-94 V-0 rating, a high LOI value of 39.2%, and more than 50% reduction of heat and smoke release. Furthermore, the π-π stacking interactions within biphenyl structures resulted in a significant enhancement of mechanical strength by as more as 37.7%, and also played a positive role in achieving a lower dielectric constant. Significantly, the copolymer exhibited outstanding closed-loop chemical recyclability, allowing for facile depolymerization into bisphenol monomers and the repolymerized copolymer retains its high heat and fire resistance. This work provides a novel insight in the design of high-performance and closed-loop chemical recyclable polymeric materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang-Xin Xiao
- The Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Friendly and Fire-Safety Polymeric Materials (MoE), National Engineering Laboratory of Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials (Sichuan), State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Qin Zhang
- The Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Friendly and Fire-Safety Polymeric Materials (MoE), National Engineering Laboratory of Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials (Sichuan), State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Tong-Yu Bai
- The Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Friendly and Fire-Safety Polymeric Materials (MoE), National Engineering Laboratory of Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials (Sichuan), State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Zi-Xun Chen
- The Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Friendly and Fire-Safety Polymeric Materials (MoE), National Engineering Laboratory of Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials (Sichuan), State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Zi-Ni Wang
- The Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Friendly and Fire-Safety Polymeric Materials (MoE), National Engineering Laboratory of Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials (Sichuan), State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Jun-Hao Bai
- The Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Friendly and Fire-Safety Polymeric Materials (MoE), National Engineering Laboratory of Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials (Sichuan), State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Li Chen
- The Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Friendly and Fire-Safety Polymeric Materials (MoE), National Engineering Laboratory of Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials (Sichuan), State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Bo-Wen Liu
- The Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Friendly and Fire-Safety Polymeric Materials (MoE), National Engineering Laboratory of Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials (Sichuan), State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
| | - Yu-Zhong Wang
- The Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Friendly and Fire-Safety Polymeric Materials (MoE), National Engineering Laboratory of Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials (Sichuan), State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China
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2
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Amariei G, Henriksen ML, Klarskov P, Hinge M. Quantification of aluminium trihydrate flame retardant in polyolefins via in-line hyperspectral imaging and machine learning for safe sorting. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2024; 311:123984. [PMID: 38320471 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2024.123984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
The extensive use of aluminium trihydrate (ATH) flame retardant in plastics poses challenges and hazards in plastic waste recycling, thus it is crucial to accurately identify ATH. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of an industrial in-line shortwave infrared (SWIR) hyperspectral imaging system and principal component analysis (PCA) for detecting and quantifying ATH in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polypropylene (PP). The samples were characterized by elemental analysis, ATR-FTIR, DSC, and TGA. A quantitative estimation model was developed by analysing spectra with varying ATH concentrations. PCA and SWIR band area ratio were fitted to estimate the ATH concentration. The PCA model outperformed the SWIR band area ratio model and achieved good predictions between measured and predicted ATH concentrations ranging from 22.9 to 1.6 wt% (R2LDPE = 0.95) in LDPE and from 24.0 to 2.5 wt% in PP (R2PP = 0.94). The obtained in-line control tool is relevant to the recycling industries, enabling real-time assessment of additives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgiana Amariei
- Plastic and Polymer Engineering, Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aabogade 40, DK-8200 Aarhus N., Denmark
| | - Martin Lahn Henriksen
- Plastic and Polymer Engineering, Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aabogade 40, DK-8200 Aarhus N., Denmark
| | - Pernille Klarskov
- Terahertz Photonics, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aarhus University, Finlandsgade 22, DK-8200 Aarhus N., Denmark
| | - Mogens Hinge
- Plastic and Polymer Engineering, Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aabogade 40, DK-8200 Aarhus N., Denmark.
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Plaza MG, Mendoza López ML, Pérez Bueno JDJ, Pérez Meneses J, Maldonado Pérez AX. Polymer Waste Recycling of Injection Molding Purges with Softening for Cutting with Fresnel Solar Collector-A Real Problem Linked to Sustainability and the Circular Economy. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1012. [PMID: 38611270 PMCID: PMC11014222 DOI: 10.3390/polym16071012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
A plastic injection waste known as "purge" cannot be reintegrated into the recycling chain due to its shape, size, and composition. Grinding these cannot be carried out with traditional mills due to significant variations in size and shape. This work proposes a process and the design of a device that operates with solar energy to cut the purges without exceeding the degradation temperature. The size reduction allows reprocessing, revalorization, and handling. The purges are mixtures of processed polymers, so their characterization information is unavailable. Some characterizations were conducted before the design of the process and after the cut of the purges. Some of the most representative purges in a recycling company were evaluated. The flame test determines that all material mixtures retain thermoplasticity. The hardness (Shore D) presented changes in four of the purges being assessed, with results in a range of 59-71 before softening and 60-68 after softening. Young's modulus was analyzed by the impulse excitation technique (IET), which was 2.38-3.95 GPa before softening and 1.7-4.28 after softening. The feasibility of cutting purges at their softening temperature was evaluated. This was achieved in all the purges evaluated at 250-280 °C. FTIR allowed for corroboration of no significant change in the purges after softening. The five types of purges evaluated were polypropylene-ABS, polycarbonate-ABS-polypropylene, yellow nylon 66, acetal, and black nylon 66 with fillers, and all were easily cut at their softening temperature, allowing their manipulation in subsequent process steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ma. Guadalupe Plaza
- Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Querétaro, Av. Tecnológico s/n Esq. M. Escobedo Col. Centro, Santiago de Querétaro C.P. 76000, Querétaro, Mexico (J.P.M.)
| | - Maria Luisa Mendoza López
- Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Querétaro, Av. Tecnológico s/n Esq. M. Escobedo Col. Centro, Santiago de Querétaro C.P. 76000, Querétaro, Mexico (J.P.M.)
| | - José de Jesús Pérez Bueno
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico en Electroquímica, S. C., Parque Tecnológico Querétaro-Sanfandila, Pedro Escobedo C.P. 76703, Querétaro, Mexico;
| | - Joaquín Pérez Meneses
- Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Querétaro, Av. Tecnológico s/n Esq. M. Escobedo Col. Centro, Santiago de Querétaro C.P. 76000, Querétaro, Mexico (J.P.M.)
| | - Alejandra Xochitl Maldonado Pérez
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico en Electroquímica, S. C., Parque Tecnológico Querétaro-Sanfandila, Pedro Escobedo C.P. 76703, Querétaro, Mexico;
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4
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Clark R, Shaver MP. Depolymerization within a Circular Plastics System. Chem Rev 2024; 124:2617-2650. [PMID: 38386877 PMCID: PMC10941197 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
The societal importance of plastics contrasts with the carelessness with which they are disposed. Their superlative properties lead to economic and environmental efficiency, but the linearity of plastics puts the climate, human health, and global ecosystems at risk. Recycling is fundamental to transitioning this linear model into a more sustainable, circular economy. Among recycling technologies, chemical depolymerization offers a route to virgin quality recycled plastics, especially when valorizing complex waste streams poorly served by mechanical methods. However, chemical depolymerization exists in a complex and interlinked system of end-of-life fates, with the complementarity of each approach key to environmental, economic, and societal sustainability. This review explores the recent progress made into the depolymerization of five commercial polymers: poly(ethylene terephthalate), polycarbonates, polyamides, aliphatic polyesters, and polyurethanes. Attention is paid not only to the catalytic technologies used to enhance depolymerization efficiencies but also to the interrelationship with other recycling technologies and to the systemic constraints imposed by a global economy. Novel polymers, designed for chemical depolymerization, are also concisely reviewed in terms of their underlying chemistry and potential for integration with current plastic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robbie
A. Clark
- Department
of Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United
Kingdom
- Sustainable
Materials Innovation Hub, Henry Royce Institute, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United
Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Shaver
- Department
of Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United
Kingdom
- Sustainable
Materials Innovation Hub, Henry Royce Institute, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United
Kingdom
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5
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Amariei G, Lahn Henriksen M, Klarskov P, Hinge M. In-line quantitative estimation of ammonium polyphosphate flame retardant in polyolefins via industrial hyperspectral imaging system and machine learning. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 170:1-7. [PMID: 37531740 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Due to developments in European legislation, several halogenated flame retardants are banned due to their toxicity, and the use of phosphor-based flame retardants in plastics is increasing. A revision of ammonium polyphosphate (APP) flame retardant revealed that it is an eye irritant and toxic, thus posing a health issue. Hence APP identification is needed for enabling safe recycling of plastic waste streams. Herein an industrial in-line method for quantitative estimation of APP in low density polyethylene (LDPE) and polypropylene (PP) is demonstrated, by using an industrial hyperspectral imaging system (955 to 1700 nm) and principal component analysis (PCA). Spectra of plastic samples with varying concentrations of APP were applied to build and calibrate a quantitative determination method. PCA and band area ratios (of selected bands) were made and fitted with continuous functions for concentration determination. The plastic samples were characterised by elemental analysis, attenuated total reflection, differential scanning calorimetry, and thermogravimetric analysis. The PCA model outperforms the band area ratio model and predicts APP concentrations between 24.3 and 1.5 wt% in LDPE (R2 = 0.98) and 20.0 and 1.7 wt% in PP (R2 = 0.97). Unknown samples with APP ranging from 23.7 to 2.7 wt% in LDPE and from 18.6 to 2.3 wt% in PP were predicted and correlated to the actual concentrations. The proposed approach is valuable for the plastic recyclers and waste management industries where inline concentration determination of flame retardants is key.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgiana Amariei
- Plastic and Polymer Engineering, Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aabogade 40, DK-8200 Aarhus N., Denmark
| | - Martin Lahn Henriksen
- Plastic and Polymer Engineering, Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aabogade 40, DK-8200 Aarhus N., Denmark
| | - Pernille Klarskov
- Terahertz Photonics, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aarhus University, Finlandsgade 22, DK-8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Mogens Hinge
- Plastic and Polymer Engineering, Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aabogade 40, DK-8200 Aarhus N., Denmark.
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6
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Abbas-Abadi MS, Kusenberg M, Zayoud A, Roosen M, Vermeire F, Madanikashani S, Kuzmanović M, Parvizi B, Kresovic U, De Meester S, Van Geem KM. Thermal pyrolysis of waste versus virgin polyolefin feedstocks: The role of pressure, temperature and waste composition. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 165:108-118. [PMID: 37119685 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Due to the complexity and diversity of polyolefinic plastic waste streams and the inherent non-selective nature of the pyrolysis chemistry, the chemical decomposition of plastic waste is still not fully understood. Accurate data of feedstock and products that also consider impurities is, in this context, quite scarce. Therefore this work focuses on the thermochemical recycling via pyrolysis of different virgin and contaminated waste-derived polyolefin feedstocks (i.e., low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP) as main components), along with an investigation of the decomposition mechanisms based on the detailed composition of the pyrolysis oils. Crucial in this work is the detailed chemical analysis of the resulting pyrolysis oils by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) and ICP-OES, among others. Different feedstocks were pyrolyzed at a temperature range of 430-490 °C and at pressures between 0.1 and 2 bar in a continuous pilot-scale pyrolysis unit. At the lowest pressure, the pyrolysis oil yield of the studied polyolefins reached up to 95 wt%. The pyrolysis oil consists of primarily α-olefins (37-42 %) and n-paraffins (32-35 %) for LDPE pyrolysis, while isoolefins (mostly C9 and C15) and diolefins accounted for 84-91 % of the PP-based pyrolysis oils. The post-consumer waste feedstocks led to significantly less pyrolysis oil yields and more char formation compared to their virgin equivalents. It was found that plastic aging, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (3 wt%), and metal contamination were the main causes of char formation during the pyrolysis of polyolefin waste (4.9 wt%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehrdad Seifali Abbas-Abadi
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Marvin Kusenberg
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Azd Zayoud
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Florence Vermeire
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | - Sepehr Madanikashani
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium; Materials and Process Engineering (IMAP), Institute of Mechanics, Materials and Civil Engineering (iMMC), Université catholique de Louvain - Place Sainte Barbe 2, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Maja Kuzmanović
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium; College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Sichuan University (Wangjiang campus), No.24 South Section 1, Yihuan Road, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Behzad Parvizi
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | | | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
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Comprehensive Review of Recent Research Advances on Flame-Retardant Coatings for Building Materials: Chemical Ingredients, Micromorphology, and Processing Techniques. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041842. [PMID: 36838828 PMCID: PMC9962387 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Developing fire-retardant building materials is vital in reducing fire loss. The design and preparation of novel fire-retardant coatings merely require the adhesion of flame retardants with high fire-retardant characteristics on the surface, which is significantly more economical than adding excessive amounts of flame retardants into bulk building materials. Meanwhile, fire-retardant coating has excellent performance because it can block the self-sustaining mechanisms of heat and mass transfer over combustion interfaces. In recent years, research of fire-retardant coatings for building materials has been subject to rapid development, and a variety of novel environmentally benign fire-retardant coatings have been reported. Nonetheless, as the surface characteristics of various flammable building materials are contrastively different, selecting chemical ingredients and controlling the physical morphology of fire-retardant coatings for specific building materials is rather complicated. Thus, it is urgent to review the ideas and preparation methods for new fire-retardant coatings. This paper summarizes the latest research progress of fire-retardant building materials, focusing on the compositions and performances of fire-retardant coatings, as well as the principles of their bottom-up design and preparation methods on the surface of building materials.
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8
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Undas AK, Groenen M, Peters RJB, van Leeuwen SPJ. Safety of recycled plastics and textiles: Review on the detection, identification and safety assessment of contaminants. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 312:137175. [PMID: 36370761 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In 2019, 368 mln tonnes of plastics were produced worldwide. Likewise, the textiles and apparel industry, with an annual revenue of 1.3 trillion USD in 2016, is one of the largest fast-growing industries. Sustainable use of resources forces the development of new plastic and textile recycling methods and implementation of the circular economy (reduce, reuse and recycle) concept. However, circular use of plastics and textiles could lead to the accumulation of a variety of contaminants in the recycled product. This paper first reviewed the origin and nature of potential hazards that arise from recycling processes of plastics and textiles. Next, we reviewed current analytical methods and safety assessment frameworks that could be adapted to detect and identify these contaminants. Various contaminants can end up in recycled plastic. Phthalates are formed during waste collection while flame retardants and heavy metals are introduced during the recycling process. Contaminants linked to textile recycling include; detergents, resistant coatings, flame retardants, plastics coatings, antibacterial and anti-mould agents, pesticides, dyes, volatile organic compounds and nanomaterials. However, information is limited and further research is required. Various techniques are available that have detected various compounds, However, standards have to be developed in order to identify these compounds. Furthermore, the techniques mentioned in this review cover a wide range of organic chemicals, but studies covering potential inorganic contamination in recycled materials are still missing. Finally, approaches like TTC and CoMSAS for risk assessment should be used for recycled plastic and textile materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Undas
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708, WB, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Marc Groenen
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708, WB, Wageningen, Netherlands.
| | - Ruud J B Peters
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708, WB, Wageningen, Netherlands
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9
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Paliya S, Mandpe A, Kumar MS, Kumar S, Kumar R. Assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ether contamination and associated human exposure risk at municipal waste dumping sites. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2022; 44:4437-4453. [PMID: 35113302 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-022-01208-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The reports concerning the occurrence and fate of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) at municipal solid waste (MSW) dumping sites are scarce, and considering the Indian context, no study has been conducted to assess PBDE contamination at MSW dumping sites and associated exposure and health risk. Therefore, in the present study, the concentration of PBDE congeners was investigated in soil samples amassed from MSW dumping sites of India and the factors affecting the dissemination of different PBDE congeners in soil were evaluated. Also, the human exposure and health risk through soil intake and dermal contact were also evaluated the first time in India. The total PBDE concentrations from tri- to deBDE congeners in soil ranged from 6.81 to 33.67 μg/g dw and showed a trend towards higher levels of PBDEs in the dumping sites of more populous cities. BDE 183 was found to be the main congener in the soil of the dumping sites. The congener profile in the soil exhibited the composition of the octa- and deBDE technical mixture and possibilities of biological and photodegradation of deBDE into lower brominated congeners. A significant correlation was observed between the measures of BDE 183 and BDE 209 congeners and carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen contents of the soil. The measured exposure doses of PBDEs through soil intake and dermal contact and the hazard index was estimated higher in children as compared to adults, which indicates the increased risk and susceptibility of infants and children to PBDE exposure. The results of the present study revealed that the MSW dumping sites in India are a sink of PBDEs and might have detrimental effects on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonam Paliya
- CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201 002, India
| | - Ashootosh Mandpe
- CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201 002, India
- Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, 453 552, India
| | - Manukonda Suresh Kumar
- CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201 002, India
| | - Sunil Kumar
- CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201 002, India.
| | - Rakesh Kumar
- CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India
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10
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Al-Salem SM, Leeke GA, El-Eskandarany MS, Van Haute M, Constantinou A, Dewil R, Baeyens J. On the implementation of the circular economy route for E-waste management: A critical review and an analysis for the case of the state of Kuwait. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 323:116181. [PMID: 36108508 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Electronic waste (e-waste) has become one of the major causes of environmental concerns due to its large volume, high generation rate and toxic environmental burdens. Recent estimates put e-waste generation at about 54 million tonnes per annum with figures reaching approximately 75 million tonnes per annum by 2030. In this manuscript, the state-of-the-art technologies and techniques for segregation, recovery and recycling of e-waste with a special focus on the valorisation aspects of e-plastics and e-metals which are critically reviewed. A history and insight into environmental aspects and regulation/legislations are presented including those that could be adopted in the near future for e-waste management. The prospects of implementing such technologies in the State of Kuwait for the recovery of materials and energy from e-waste where infrastructure is lacking still for waste management are presented through Material Flow Analysis. The information showed that Kuwait has a major problem in waste accumulation. It is estimated that e-waste in Kuwait (with no accumulation or backlog) is generated at a rate of 67,000 tpa, and the imports of broadcasting electronics generate some 19,428 tonnes. After reviewing economic factors of potential recovered plastics, iron and glass from broadcasting devices in Kuwait as e-waste, a total revenue of $399,729 per annum is estimated from their valorisation. This revenue will open the prospect of ventures for other e-waste and fuel recovery options as well as environmental benefits and the move to a circular economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Al-Salem
- Environment & Life Sciences Research Centre, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), P.O. Box 24885, Safat, 13109, Kuwait.
| | - Gary Anthony Leeke
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Maarten Van Haute
- Q8 Research, Kuwait Petroleum Research and Technology B.V., Moezelweg 251, 3198, LS, Europoort Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Achilleas Constantinou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Cyprus University of Technology, 57 Corner of Athinon and Anexartisias, 3036, Limassol, Cyprus
| | - Raf Dewil
- Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, J. De Nayerlaan 5, Sint-Katelijne, Waver, 2860, Belgium; Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PJ, UK
| | - Jan Baeyens
- Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, J. De Nayerlaan 5, Sint-Katelijne, Waver, 2860, Belgium; Beijing Advanced Innovation Centre for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
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11
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Westlie AH, Chen EYX, Holland CM, Stahl SS, Doyle M, Trenor SR, Knauer KM. Polyolefin Innovations toward Circularity and Sustainable Alternatives. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2200492. [PMID: 35908163 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202200492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The unprecedented growth and socioeconomic impacts of polyolefins clearly outline a major success story in the world of polymer science. Polyolefins revolutionizes industries such as health care, construction, and food packaging. Despite the benefits of polyolefins, there is a rising concern for the environment due to high production volume (i.e., fossil fuel consumption), often short usage time, and problems related to waste management and accumulation in the natural environment. Creating a circular economy for polyolefins through effective recycling technologies has the potential to decrease the environmental impact of these materials. This perspective discusses polyolefins and their impact, existing and emerging recycling/upcycling solutions, and recycle-by-design alternatives that are challenging the status quo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea H Westlie
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Eugene Y-X Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Chris M Holland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA.,Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Shannon S Stahl
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA.,Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Meredith Doyle
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver W Pkwy, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Scott R Trenor
- Plastics Additives, Milliken Chemical, Milliken and Company, Spartanburg, SC, 29303, USA
| | - Katrina M Knauer
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver W Pkwy, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
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12
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Gerassimidou S, Lanska P, Hahladakis JN, Lovat E, Vanzetto S, Geueke B, Groh KJ, Muncke J, Maffini M, Martin OV, Iacovidou E. Unpacking the complexity of the PET drink bottles value chain: A chemicals perspective. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 430:128410. [PMID: 35295000 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Chemicals can migrate from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) drink bottles to their content and recycling processes may concentrate or introduce new chemicals to the PET value chain. Therefore, even though recycling PET bottles is key in reducing plastic pollution, it may raise concerns about safety and quality. This study provides a systematic evidence map of the food contact chemicals (FCCs) that migrate from PET drink bottles aiming to identify challenges in closing the plastic packaging loop. The migration potential of 193 FCCs has been investigated across the PET drink bottles lifecycle, of which 150 have been detected to migrate from PET bottles into food simulants/food samples. The study reveals that much research has focused on the migration of antimony (Sb), acetaldehyde and some well-known endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). It indicates and discusses the key influential factors on FCCs migration, such as physical characteristics and geographical origin of PET bottles, storage conditions, and reprocessing efficiency . Although, safety and quality implications arising from the recycling of PET bottles remain underexplored, the higher migration of Sb and Bishphenol A has been reported in recycled (rPET) compared to virgin PET. This is attributed to multiple contamination sources and the variability in the collection, sorting, and decontamination efficiency. Better collaboration among stakeholders across the entire PET bottles lifecycle is needed to ensure sustainable resource management and food contact safety of rPET.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spyridoula Gerassimidou
- Sustainable Plastics Research Group (SPlasH), Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, United Kingdom
| | - Paulina Lanska
- Sustainable Plastics Research Group (SPlasH), Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, United Kingdom
| | - John N Hahladakis
- Waste Management Program, Center for Sustainable Development, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, P.O. Box: 2713, Doha, Qatar
| | - Elena Lovat
- Italian Agency for Development Cooperation (AICS), Addis Ababa Office, Kebena, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Silvia Vanzetto
- Centro Internazionale per l'Infanzia e la Famiglia (CIFA) Onlus, Hawassa Field Office, Hawassa, Ethiopia
| | - Birgit Geueke
- Food Packaging Forum (FPF), Zurich 8045, Switzerland
| | - Ksenia J Groh
- Eawag - Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Jane Muncke
- Food Packaging Forum (FPF), Zurich 8045, Switzerland
| | | | - Olwenn V Martin
- Sustainable Plastics Research Group (SPlasH), Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, United Kingdom; Centre for Pollution Research and Policy, Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, United Kingdom.
| | - Eleni Iacovidou
- Sustainable Plastics Research Group (SPlasH), Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, United Kingdom; Division of Environmental Sciences, College of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, United Kingdom.
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13
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Kokuryo S, Miyake K, Uchida Y, Tanaka S, Miyamoto M, Oumi Y, Mizusawa A, Kubo T, Nishiyama N. Design of Zr- and Al-Doped *BEA-Type Zeolite to Boost LDPE Cracking. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:12971-12977. [PMID: 35474795 PMCID: PMC9026135 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, the increase in plastic waste is causing serious environmental problems. Catalytic cracking has been considered a promising candidate to solve these problems. Catalytic cracking has emerged as an attractive process that can produce valuable products from plastic wastes. Solid acid catalysts such as zeolites decompose the plastic waste at a lower temperature. The lower decomposition temperature may be desirable for practical use. Herein, we synthesized both Zr- and Al-incorporated Beta zeolite using amorphous ZrO2-SiO2. The optimized Zr content in the dry gel allowed the enhancement of Lewis acidity without a significant loss of Brønsted acidity. The enhancement of Lewis acidity was mainly due to Zr species incorporated into the zeolite framework. Thanks to the enhanced Lewis acidity without any significant loss of Brønsted acidity, higher polymer decomposition efficiency was achieved than a conventional Beta zeolite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinya Kokuryo
- Division
of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
| | - Koji Miyake
- Division
of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Uchida
- Division
of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Tanaka
- Department
of Chemical, Energy and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Environmental
and Urban Engineering, Kansai University, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita-shi, Osaka 564-8680, Japan
| | - Manabu Miyamoto
- Department
of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Gifu
University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Yasunori Oumi
- Research
Equipment Sharing Promotion Center, Organization for Research and
Community Development, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Atsushi Mizusawa
- AC
Biode Co., Ltd., 498-6
Iwakura Hanazono, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-0024, Japan
| | - Tadashi Kubo
- AC
Biode Co., Ltd., 498-6
Iwakura Hanazono, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-0024, Japan
| | - Norikazu Nishiyama
- Division
of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
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14
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CaCO 3 Polymorphs Used as Additives in Filament Production for 3D Printing. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14010199. [PMID: 35012221 PMCID: PMC8747344 DOI: 10.3390/polym14010199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, additive manufacturing—also called 3D printing—represents a well-established technology in the field of the processing of various types of materials manufacturing products used in many industrial sectors. The most common type of 3D printing uses the fused filament fabrication (FFF) method, in which materials based on thermoplastics or elastomers are processed into filaments. Much effort was dedicated to improving the properties and processing of such printed filaments, and various types of inorganic and organic additives have been found to play a beneficial role. One of them, calcium carbonate (CaCO3), is standardly used as filler for the processing of polymeric materials. However, it is well-known from its different applications that CaCO3 crystals may represent particles of different morphologies and shapes that may have a crucial impact on the final properties of the resulting products. For this reason, three different synthetic polymorphs of CaCO3 (aragonite, calcite, and vaterite) and commercially available calcite powders were applied as fillers for the fabrication of polymeric filaments. Analysis of obtained data from different testing techniques has shown significant influence of filament properties depending on the type of applied CaCO3 polymorph. Aragonite particles showed a beneficial impact on the mechanical properties of produced filaments. The obtained results may help to fabricate products with enhanced properties using 3D printing FFF technology.
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15
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Bascucci C, Duretek I, Lehner S, Holzer C, Gaan S, Hufenus R, Gooneie A. Investigating thermomechanical recycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) containing phosphorus flame retardants. Polym Degrad Stab 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2021.109783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Makgabutlane B, Maubane-Nkadimeng MS, Coville NJ, Mhlanga SD. Plastic-fly ash waste composites reinforced with carbon nanotubes for sustainable building and construction applications: A review. RESULTS IN CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rechem.2022.100405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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17
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Alghrafy YM, El-Badawy SM, Abd Alla ESM. Rheological and environmental evaluation of sulfur extended asphalt binders modified by high- and low-density polyethylene recycled waste. CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS 2021; 307:125008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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18
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Charitopoulou MA, Kalogiannis KG, Lappas AA, Achilias DS. Novel trends in the thermo-chemical recycling of plastics from WEEE containing brominated flame retardants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:59190-59213. [PMID: 32638300 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-09932-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The amount of plastics from waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) has enormously increased nowadays, due to the rapid expansion and consumption of electronic devices and their short lifespan. This, in combination with their non-biodegradability, led to the need to explore environmentally friendly solutions for their safe disposal. One main obstacle when recycling plastics from WEEE is that they usually comprise harmful additives such as brominated flame retardants (BFRs) that need to be removed before or during their recycling. This paper reviews existing techniques for the recycling of plastics from WEEE and focuses specifically on the advantages, disadvantages, and challenges of pyrolysis as an environmentally friendly method for the production of value-added materials (monomers, hydrocarbons, phenols, etc.). Current technological trends available for the recycling of plastics containing brominated flame retardants are reviewed in an attempt to provide insights for future research on the sustainable management of plastics from WEEE. Emphasis is given on conventional pyrolysis, where a pretreatment step for the debromination of products is applied. This is required since brominated compounds treated at high temperatures may result in the production of harmful to health compounds such as dioxins. All current pretreatment methods (solvent extraction, supercritical fluid technology, etc.) are presented and compared in detail. Co-pyrolysis is also investigated, as it seems to be a very interesting approach, since no catalysts or solvents are used, and at the same time, more plastic wastes can be consumed as feedstock. Furthermore, catalytic pyrolysis along with key parameters, such as the type of the catalyst or pyrolysis temperature, are fully analyzed. Catalysts affect the products' distribution and enhance the removal of bromine from pyrolysis oils. Finally, an emerging technique, that of microwave-assisted pyrolysis, is also highlighted, as it offers many advantages over conventional pyrolysis. Of course, there are some impediments, such as the operational costs or other difficulties as regards the industrial implementation of the mentioned techniques that need to be overcome through future works.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Anna Charitopoulou
- Laboratory of Polymers and Dyes Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Konstantinos G Kalogiannis
- Chemical Process and Energy Resources Institute, Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, 57001 Thermi, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Angelos A Lappas
- Chemical Process and Energy Resources Institute, Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, 57001 Thermi, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Dimitriοs S Achilias
- Laboratory of Polymers and Dyes Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24, Thessaloniki, Greece.
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19
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Roy PS, Garnier G, Allais F, Saito K. Strategic Approach Towards Plastic Waste Valorization: Challenges and Promising Chemical Upcycling Possibilities. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:4007-4027. [PMID: 34132056 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202100904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 06/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Plastic waste, which is one of the major sources of pollution in the landfills and oceans, has raised global concern, primarily due to the huge production rate, high durability, and the lack of utilization of the available waste management techniques. Recycling methods are preferable to reduce the impact of plastic pollution to some extent. However, most of the recycling techniques are associated with different drawbacks, high cost and downgrading of product quality being among the notable ones. The sustainable option here is to upcycle the plastic waste to create high-value materials to compensate for the cost of production. Several upcycling techniques are constantly being investigated and explored, which is currently the only economical option to resolve the plastic waste issue. This Review provides a comprehensive insight on the promising chemical routes available for upcycling of the most widely used plastic and mixed plastic wastes. The challenges inherent to these processes, the recent advances, and the significant role of the science and research community in resolving these issues are further emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pallabi Sinha Roy
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, VIC, Australia
- BioPRIA, Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, VIC, Australia
| | - Gil Garnier
- BioPRIA, Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, VIC, Australia
- URD Agro-Biotechnologies Industrielles (ABI), CEBB, AgroParisTech, 51110, Pomacle, France
| | - Florent Allais
- BioPRIA, Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, VIC, Australia
- URD Agro-Biotechnologies Industrielles (ABI), CEBB, AgroParisTech, 51110, Pomacle, France
| | - Kei Saito
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, VIC, Australia
- BioPRIA, Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, VIC, Australia
- Graduate School of Advanced Integrated Studies in Human Survivability, Kyoto University, Higashi-Ichijo-Kan, Yoshida-nakaadachicho 1, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8306, Japan
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20
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Abstract
The increased diversity and complexity of plastics used in modern devices, such as electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), can have negative impacts on their recyclability. Today, the main economic driver for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) recycling stems from metal recovery. WEEE plastics recycling, on the other hand, still represents a major challenge. Strategies like design ‘for’, but also the much younger concept of design ‘from’ recycling play a key role in closing the material loops within a circular economy. While these strategies are usually analysed separately, this brief report harmonises them in comprehensive Design for Circularity guidelines, established in a multi-stakeholder collaboration with industry leaders from the entire WEEE value chain. The guidelines were developed at the product and part levels. They are divided in five categories: (1) avoidance of hazardous substances; (2) enabling easy access and removal of hazardous or polluting parts; (3) use of recyclable materials; (4) use of material combinations and connections allowing easy liberation; (5) use of recycled materials. These guidelines are the first harmonised set to be released for the EEE industry. They can readily serve decision-makers from different levels, including product designers and manufacturers as well as policymakers.
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21
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Butturi MA, Marinelli S, Gamberini R, Rimini B. Ecotoxicity of Plastics from Informal Waste Electric and Electronic Treatment and Recycling. TOXICS 2020; 8:toxics8040099. [PMID: 33171687 PMCID: PMC7712128 DOI: 10.3390/toxics8040099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Plastic materials account for about 20% of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). The recycling of this plastic fraction is a complex issue, heavily conditioned by the content of harmful additives, such as brominated flame retardants. Thus, the management and reprocessing of WEEE plastics pose environmental and human health concerns, mainly in developing countries, where informal recycling and disposal are practiced. The objective of this study was twofold. Firstly, it aimed to investigate some of the available options described in the literature for the re-use of WEEE plastic scraps in construction materials, a promising recycling route in the developing countries. Moreover, it presents an evaluation of the impact of these available end-of-life scenarios on the environment by means of the life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. In order to consider worker health and human and ecological risks, the LCA analysis focuses on ecotoxicity more than on climate change. The LCA evaluation confirmed that the plastic re-use in the construction sector has a lower toxicity impact on the environment and human health than common landfilling and incineration practices. It also shows that the unregulated handling and dismantling activities, as well as the re-use practices, contribute significantly to the impact of WEEE plastic treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Angela Butturi
- Department of Sciences and Methods for Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Amendola 2, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy; (S.M.); (R.G.); (B.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: (+39)-0522-523-563
| | - Simona Marinelli
- Department of Sciences and Methods for Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Amendola 2, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy; (S.M.); (R.G.); (B.R.)
| | - Rita Gamberini
- Department of Sciences and Methods for Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Amendola 2, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy; (S.M.); (R.G.); (B.R.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center for Industrial Research and Technology Transfer in the Field of Integrated Technologies for Sustainable Research, Efficient Energy Conversion, Energy Efficiency of Buildings, Lighting and Home Automation, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Bianca Rimini
- Department of Sciences and Methods for Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Amendola 2, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy; (S.M.); (R.G.); (B.R.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center for Industrial Research and Technology Transfer in the Field of Integrated Technologies for Sustainable Research, Efficient Energy Conversion, Energy Efficiency of Buildings, Lighting and Home Automation, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 42122 Reggio Emilia, Italy
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22
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Cheng H, Luo H, Hu Y, Tao S. Release kinetics as a key linkage between the occurrence of flame retardants in microplastics and their risk to the environment and ecosystem: A critical review. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 185:116253. [PMID: 32768659 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The widely occurring debris of plastic materials, particularly microplastics, can be an important source of flame retardants, which are one of the main groups of chemicals added in the production of plastics from polymers. This review provides an overview on the use of flame retardants in plastic manufacturing, the kinetics of their releases from microplastics, the factors affecting their releases, and the potential environmental and ecosystem risk of the released flame retardants. The releases of flame retardants from microplastics typically involve three major steps: internal diffusion, mass transfer across the plastic-medium boundary layer, and diffusion in the environmental medium, while the overall mass transfer rate is commonly controlled by diffusion within the plastic matrix. The overall release rates of additive flame retardants from microplastics, which are dependent on the particle's geometry, can often be described by the Fick's Law. The physicochemical properties of flame retardant and plastic matrix, and ambient temperature all affect the release rate, which can be predicted with empirical and semi-empirical models. Weathering of microplastics, which reduces their particle sizes and likely disrupts their polymeric structures, can greatly accelerate the releases of flame retardants. Flame retardants could also be released directly from the microplastics ingested by aquatic organisms and seabirds, with physical and chemical digestion in the bodies significantly enhancing their release rates. Limited by the extremely slow diffusion in plastic matrices, the fluxes of flame retardants released from microplastics are very low, and are unlikely to pose significant risk to the ecosystem in general. More research is needed to characterize the mechanical, chemical, and biological processes that degrade microplastics and accelerate the releases of flame retardants and to model their release kinetics from microplastics, while efforts should also be made to develop environmentally benign flame retardants to ultimately minimize their risk to the environment and ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hefa Cheng
- MOE Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Hang Luo
- MOE Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yuanan Hu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Circulation and EvolutioSchool of Water Resources and Environment, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
| | - Shu Tao
- MOE Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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23
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Schyns ZOG, Shaver MP. Mechanical Recycling of Packaging Plastics: A Review. Macromol Rapid Commun 2020; 42:e2000415. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.202000415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zoé O. G. Schyns
- Department of Materials The University of Manchester Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Michael P. Shaver
- Department of Materials The University of Manchester Manchester M1 7DN UK
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24
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Samuilov AY, Korshunov M, Samuilov YD. Methanolysis of Polycarbonate Waste as a Method of Regenerating Monomers for Polycarbonate Synthesis. POLYMER SCIENCE SERIES B 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s1560090420030136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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25
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Guo M, Gu Y, Fan X. Chlorinated phosphorus flame retardants exert oxidative damage to SMMC-7721 human hepatocarcinoma cells. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 705:135777. [PMID: 31972937 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 11/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated phosphorus flame retardants are organic pollutants widely distributed in the environment. However, there is still a lack of understanding of the toxicity mechanism of chlorinated phosphorus flame retardants at the molecular level. Tris (1, 3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCPP), tris (2-chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) and tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) were used as typical representatives of chlorinated phosphorus flame retardants to evaluate their cytotoxicity as well as changes in the expression of the enzymes lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT), which will be meaningful for an in-depth study of the toxicity mechanism of TDCPP, TCPP and TCEP. The results showed that the three chemicals reduced cell viability over a period of 24 h. The exposure increased extracellular levels of lactate dehydrogenase and decreased intracellular levels of superoxide dismutase and catalase in a concentration-dependent manner. Expression of the SOD and CAT genes were down-regulated indicating that the SMMC-7721 human hepatocarcinoma cells may experience oxidative damage as a result of exposure to the three chemicals. The expression of the Bax apoptosis protein was up-regulated and the Bcl-2 apoptosis protein was down-regulated, suggesting that the three chemicals may cause functional defects, damage the cell structure and promote apoptosis. The results from this study should provide the basis for a detailed investigation of the ecological toxicity of chlorinated phosphorus flame retardants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Guo
- School of Science, Zhejiang A & F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China; School of Forestry and Bio-Technology, Zhejiang A & F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China.
| | - Yi Gu
- School of Forestry and Bio-Technology, Zhejiang A & F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China
| | - Xiaoyue Fan
- School of Landscape Architecture School of Tourism and Health, Zhejiang A & F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311300, China
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26
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Hahladakis JN, Iacovidou E. An overview of the challenges and trade-offs in closing the loop of post-consumer plastic waste (PCPW): Focus on recycling. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2019; 380:120887. [PMID: 31330387 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.120887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Recycling of post-consumer plastic waste (PCPW) is increasingly promoted as the means to achieving circular economy (CE). It converts plastic waste into a secondary material that can be fed back into the system, for use in the same or new components and products, with similar or lower functionality; hence "closing the loop". Up until today, research on examining the environmental impacts, economic implications and technicalities of plastic waste recycling deals with one particular aspect, or stage on the plastic value chain, lacking coherence and structure. To move this research forward, understanding the challenges and trade-offs in scaling up plastic waste recycling is necessary. Here, we bring together existing literature on the multi-faceted aspects of closing the plastic loop, critically debating on the multi-stakeholder endeavours of promoting circularity in the plastics value chain. We present an overview of how the design, production, collection and sorting of PCPW present challenges for plastic waste recycling, which in turn result to a number of trade-offs. We explain that the evaluation of the multi-dimensional implications of trade-offs arising from the PCPW recycling, is essential in measuring the long-term sustainability of resource recovery from waste systems. This work scrutinises the sustainability of closing the plastic waste loops and sets a future research agenda.
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Affiliation(s)
- John N Hahladakis
- College of Arts and Sciences, Center for Sustainable Development, Qatar University, P.O. Box: 2713, Doha, Qatar.
| | - Eleni Iacovidou
- College of Health and Life Sciences, Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UK.
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Li TY, Ge JL, Pei J, Bao LJ, Wu CC, Zeng EY. Emissions and Occupational Exposure Risk of Halogenated Flame Retardants from Primitive Recycling of E-Waste. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:12495-12505. [PMID: 31603658 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The production and usage of non-polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) have substantially increased after the ban of several PBDEs. This has resulted in widespread environmental occurrence of non-PBDE HFRs, further amplified by emissions from primitive recycling of obsolete electronics (e-waste). The present study conducted chamber experiments to characterize 15 HFRs (∑15HFR) from thermal treatment and open burning of typical e-waste. Emission factors of ∑15HFR from thermal treatment were 2.6 × 104-3.9 × 105 ng g-1, slightly higher than those from open burning (8.8 × 103-1.0 × 105 ng g-1). Greater output over input mass ratios of ∑15HFR were obtained in thermal treatment than in open burning. Particulate and gaseous HFRs dominated the emissions in thermal treatment and open burning, respectively, largely because of the different temperatures used in the two processes. Particulate HFRs were primarily affiliated with fine particles (Dp < 1.8 μm) peaking at 0.56-1.0 or 0.32-0.56 μm in both thermal treatment and open burning. Occupational exposure to most FRs was relatively low, but several PBDEs may pose potential health risk to workers in e-waste home-workshops. Potentially accruing emissions and health risks of non-PBDE HFRs from primitive recycling of e-waste remain a great concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Yu Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment , Jinan University , Guangzhou 511443 , China
| | - Jia-Li Ge
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment , Jinan University , Guangzhou 511443 , China
| | - Jie Pei
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment , Jinan University , Guangzhou 511443 , China
| | - Lian-Jun Bao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment , Jinan University , Guangzhou 511443 , China
| | - Chen-Chou Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment , Jinan University , Guangzhou 511443 , China
| | - Eddy Y Zeng
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment , Jinan University , Guangzhou 511443 , China
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28
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Puype F, Ackerman LK, Samsonek J. Evaluation of Direct Analysis in Real Time - High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (DART-HRMS) for WEEE specific substance determination in polymeric samples. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 232:481-488. [PMID: 31170651 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Revised: 05/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
There is an increased need for quick screening tools enabling the detection of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), and in particular brominated flame retardants (BFRs), in polymeric materials. Unfortunately, common laboratory techniques might face matrix effects or encounter long sample preparation times. Therefore, an ambient desorption mass spectrometric technique such as Direct Analysis in Real Time - High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (DART-HRMS) might provide fast BFR identification in polymeric objects. Within this pilot-study, the potential of DART-HRMS for the detection of WEEE fractions has been tested on WEEE impacted consumer goods such as toys and food contact articles. The identification of polymeric material containing WEEE to date has relied on measuring multiple parameters such as; polymer purity, bromine and antimony content, as well as presence of rare earth elements (REEs). In this respect DART-HRMS demonstrated an excellent ability to identify BFRs in samples at WEEE relevant concentrations, and in certain cases, volatile antimony species could be detected. DART-HRMS can be used complementary to X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy and thermal desorption GC-MS. However, more efforts to characterize DART-HRMS sensitivity limits for antimony detection are needed to ensure DART-HRMS adds value as a stand-alone screening technique for WEEE in contaminated polymers and consumer goods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franky Puype
- Institute for Testing and Certification, Inc., Trida Tomase Bati 299, Louky, 76302, Zlín, Czech Republic.
| | - Luke K Ackerman
- Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), USA, 5001 Campus Dr. College Park, MD, 20740, USA
| | - Jiří Samsonek
- Institute for Testing and Certification, Inc., Trida Tomase Bati 299, Louky, 76302, Zlín, Czech Republic
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29
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Pogorelčnik B, Pulko I, Wilhelm T, Žigon M. Influence of phosphorous‐based flame retardants on the mechanical and thermal properties of recycled PC/ABS copolymer blends. J Appl Polym Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/app.48377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Irena Pulko
- Faculty of Polymer Technology Ozare 19 SI‐2380 Slovenj Gradec Slovenia
| | - Thomas Wilhelm
- Faculty of Polymer Technology Ozare 19 SI‐2380 Slovenj Gradec Slovenia
| | - Majda Žigon
- Faculty of Polymer Technology Ozare 19 SI‐2380 Slovenj Gradec Slovenia
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30
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Wagner F, Peeters JR, De Keyzer J, Janssens K, Duflou JR, Dewulf W. Towards a more circular economy for WEEE plastics - Part B: Assessment of the technical feasibility of recycling strategies. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2019; 96:206-214. [PMID: 31376966 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2019.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This two paper series describes a method to develop and evaluate new recycling strategies for WEEE plastics. Part A presents a SWOT analysis that leads to five recycling strategies for the optimal integration of new dismantling based recycling processes for plastic components in an established post-shredder separation infrastructure. In this paper the technical feasibility of the strategies is demonstrated by means of LCD TV back cover housings. The component recycling is shown to produce recycled PC/ABS with phosphorous flame retardants suitable for direct re-application in electronic products. The high quality is characterized by a good mechanical and aesthetical properties as well as a recovered flammability. HIPS with brominated flame retardants was recycled to produce masterbatches. The technical feasibility of this strategy was proven by mechanical and flammability testing. However, the presence of deca-BDE requires this material to be incinerated. A combination of EU legislation research and forecasting shows that the origin of this flame retardant are TV models produced before 2008 and restricted concentrations still need to be expected for decades to come. Further, a blending strategy of HIPS/PPE is shown to improve the mechanical properties of post-shredder recycled HIPS. The evaluation of refeeding ABS/PMMA into the post-shredder recycling process of ABS indicates only partial compatibility. Further, complications due to density differences make this strategy more suitable for polymers that are already commercially recycled such as ABS and HIPS. Colour is identified as a key requirements that limits the use of WEEE plastics in high-quality products.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Wagner
- KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Chemical Engineering, Diepenbeek, Belgium.
| | - J R Peeters
- KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Leuven, Belgium
| | - J De Keyzer
- KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Chemical Engineering, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | | | - J R Duflou
- KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Leuven, Belgium
| | - W Dewulf
- KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Leuven, Belgium
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31
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Fiorio R, D'hooge DR, Ragaert K, Cardon L. A Statistical Analysis on the Effect of Antioxidants on the Thermal-Oxidative Stability of Commercial Mass- and Emulsion-Polymerized ABS. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 11:E25. [PMID: 30960009 PMCID: PMC6401883 DOI: 10.3390/polym11010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present work, statistical analysis (16 processing conditions and 2 virgin unmodified samples) is performed to study the influence of antioxidants (AOs) during acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer (ABS) melt-blending (220 °C) on the degradation of the polybutadiene (PB) rich phase, the oxidation onset temperature (OOT), the oxidation peak temperature (OP), and the yellowing index (YI). Predictive equations are constructed, with a focus on three commercial AOs (two primary: Irganox 1076 and 245; and one secondary: Irgafos 168) and two commercial ABS types (mass- and emulsion-polymerized). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) results indicate that the nitrile absorption peak at 2237 cm-1 is recommended as reference peak to identify chemical changes in the PB content. The melt processing of unmodified ABSs promotes a reduction in OOT and OP, and promotes an increase in the YI. ABS obtained by mass polymerization shows a higher thermal-oxidative stability. The addition of a primary AO increases the thermal-oxidative stability, whereas the secondary AO only increases OP. The addition of the two primary AOs has a synergetic effect resulting in higher OOT and OP values. Statistical analysis shows that OP data are influenced by all three AO types, but 0.2 m% of Irganox 1076 displays high potential in an industrial context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudinei Fiorio
- Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, Technologiepark 915, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
| | - Dagmar R D'hooge
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, Technologiepark 914, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
- Centre for Textiles Science and Engineering, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, Technologiepark 907, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, Technologiepark 915, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
| | - Ludwig Cardon
- Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, Technologiepark 915, 9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
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