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Construction of Mg-doped ZnO/g-C3N4@ZIF-8 multi-component catalyst with superior catalytic performance for the degradation of illicit drug under visible light. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2022.129536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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2
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He M, Wan Z, Tsang DCW, Sun Y, Khan E, Hou D, Graham NJD. Performance indicators for a holistic evaluation of catalyst-based degradation-A case study of selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 402:123460. [PMID: 32683158 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Considerable efforts have been made to develop effective and sustainable catalysts, e.g., carbon-/biochar-based catalyst, for the decontamination of organic pollutants in water/wastewater. Most of the published studies evaluated the catalytic performance mainly upon degradation efficiency of parent compounds; however, comprehensive and field-relevant performance assessment is still in need. This review critically analysed the performance indicators for carbon-/biochar-based catalytic degradation from the perspectives of: (1) degradation of parent compounds, i.e., concentrations, kinetics, reactive oxidative species (ROS) analysis, and residual oxidant concentration; (2) formation of intermediates and by-products, i.e., intermediates analysis, evolution of inorganic ions, and total organic carbon (TOC); and (3) impact assessment of treated samples, i.e., toxicity evolution, disinfection effect, and biodegradability test. Five most frequently detected pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) (sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, ibuprofen, diclofenac, and acetaminophen) were selected as a case study to articulate the performance indicators for a holistic evaluation of carbon-/biochar-based catalytic degradation. This review also encourages the development of alternative performance indicators to facilitate the rational design of catalysts in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjing He
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zhonghao Wan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Daniel C W Tsang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Yuqing Sun
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Eakalak Khan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, 89154, USA
| | - Deyi Hou
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Nigel J D Graham
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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3
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López-García E, Mastroianni N, Ponsà-Borau N, Barceló D, Postigo C, López de Alda M. Drugs of abuse and their metabolites in river sediments: Analysis, occurrence in four Spanish river basins and environmental risk assessment. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 401:123312. [PMID: 32653784 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The environmental impact produced by the presence of drugs of abuse in sediments has been scarcely studied to date, even though many of them may adsorb onto particulate matter due to their physical-chemical properties. This study presents an analytical method for the determination of 20 drugs of abuse and metabolites in sediments. The validated method was satisfactory in terms of linearity (r2 >0.99), recovery (90-135 %), repeatability (relative standard deviations <15 %), sensitivity (limits of quantification <2.1 ng/g d.w, except for cannabinoids), and matrix effects (ionization suppression <40 %). The method was applied to the analysis of 144 sediments collected in four Spanish river basins. Cocaine, methadone, and its metabolite 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP) were the most ubiquitous compounds (detection frequencies>36 %), whereas cannabinol, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and methadone were the most abundant compounds (up to 44, 37, and 33 ng/g d.w, respectively). The presence of EDDP, THC, and methadone in the sediments of 28 locations may pose a risk to sediment-dwelling organisms. To the author`s knowledge, this is the most extensive study conducted so far on the occurrence of drugs of abuse in sediments, and the first time that sediment-water distribution coefficients for EDDP, methadone, MDMA, and diazepam are reported from field observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ester López-García
- Water, Environmental, and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nicola Mastroianni
- Water, Environmental, and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Damià Barceló
- Water, Environmental, and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institute for Water Research, H2O Buiding, Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Grona, Emili Grahit 101, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - Cristina Postigo
- Water, Environmental, and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Miren López de Alda
- Water, Environmental, and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain.
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Campos-Mañas MC, Cuevas SM, Ferrer I, Thurman EM, Sánchez-Pérez JA, Agüera A. Determination of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan solar photo-transformation products by LC/Q-TOF-MS: Laboratory scale experiments and real water samples analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 265:114722. [PMID: 32454378 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This work discusses the identification of the transformation products (TPs) generated during the photolytic degradation of dextromethorphan (DXM) and its metabolite dextrorphan (DXO), under simulated solar radiation in aqueous solutions (Milli-Q water and river water) in order to determinate its behavior into the aquatic environment. Tentative identification of the TPs was performed by liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/QTOF-MS), following a suspect screening approach. The use of high resolution-mass spectrometry (HRMS) allowed the tentative identification of DXM and DXO photoproducts based on the structure proposed by an in silico software, the accurate mass measurement, the MS/MS fragmentation pattern and the molecular formula finding. A total of 19 TPs were found to match some of the accurate masses included in a suspect list, and they were all tentatively identified by their characteristic MS-MS fragments. Most of the TPs identified showed a minor modified molecular structure like the introduction of hydroxyl groups, or demethylation. The time-evolution of precursors and TPs were monitored throughout the experiments, and degradation kinetics were presented for each analyte. Finally, the occurrence of DXM, DXO, and their tentatively proposed photodegradation TPs was evaluated in both surface and wastewater. In all real matrices, the results showed that the highest concentration was detected for DXO, followed by TP-244 (N-desmethyldextrorphan) and DXM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Celia Campos-Mañas
- Solar Energy Research Centre (CIESOL), Joint Centre University of Almería-CIEMAT, Ctra de Sacramento s/n. 04120, Almería, Spain; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, Spain
| | - Sara Miralles Cuevas
- Solar Energy Research Centre (CIESOL), Joint Centre University of Almería-CIEMAT, Ctra de Sacramento s/n. 04120, Almería, Spain; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, Spain
| | - Imma Ferrer
- Center for Environmental Mass Spectrometry, Dpt. of Environmental Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Earl Michael Thurman
- Center for Environmental Mass Spectrometry, Dpt. of Environmental Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - José Antonio Sánchez-Pérez
- Solar Energy Research Centre (CIESOL), Joint Centre University of Almería-CIEMAT, Ctra de Sacramento s/n. 04120, Almería, Spain; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, Spain
| | - Ana Agüera
- Solar Energy Research Centre (CIESOL), Joint Centre University of Almería-CIEMAT, Ctra de Sacramento s/n. 04120, Almería, Spain; Department of Chemistry and Physics, University of Almería, Spain.
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Kostanjevecki P, Petric I, Loncar J, Smital T, Ahel M, Terzic S. Biodegradation study of methadone by adapted activated sludge: Elimination kinetics, transformation products and ecotoxicological evaluation. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 214:719-728. [PMID: 30293025 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.09.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The biotransformation study of difficult-to-degrade opioid analgesic methadone (MTHD) was performed by activated sludge culture adapted to high concentration of methadone (10 mg/L). The study included determination of elimination kinetics of the parent compound, taxonomic characterization of microbial culture, identification of biotransformation products (TPs) and assessment of ecotoxicological effects of biotransformation processes. The chemical analyses were performed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, whereas the ecotoxicological assessment was made based on determinations of toxicity to freshwater algae. Changes of the adapted sludge culture during the experiment were followed using the 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Depending on the experimental conditions, the elimination efficiency of methadone (10 mg/L) varied from 9% to 93% with the corresponding half-lives from 11.4 days to 1.5 days. A significantly faster elimination (t1/2 from 1.5 days to 5.8 days) was achieved at cometabolic conditions, using glucose-containing media, as compared to the experiments with MTHD as a single organic carbon source (t1/2 = 11.4 days). Moreover, increased biotransformation rate following the additional supplementation of ammonia, revealed a possible importance of nitrogen availability for the transformation at cometabolic conditions. The elimination of parent compound was associated with the formation of 3 different TPs, two of which were identical to main human metabolites of MTHD, 2-Ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP) and 2-ethyl-5-methyl-3,3-diphenyl-1-pyrroline (EMDP). EDDP represented over 90% of the total TP concentration at the end of experiment. The biodegradation of MTHD was associated with a pronounced drop in algal toxicity, confirming a rather positive ecotoxicological outcome of the achieved biotransformation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Kostanjevecki
- Division of Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ines Petric
- Division of Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Jovica Loncar
- Division of Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tvrtko Smital
- Division of Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Marijan Ahel
- Division of Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Senka Terzic
- Division of Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia.
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Khan U, Bloom RA, Nicell JA, Laurenson JP. Risks associated with the environmental release of pharmaceuticals on the U.S. Food and Drug Administration "flush list". THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 609:1023-1040. [PMID: 28787777 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2017] [Revised: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
A select few prescription drugs can be especially harmful and, in some cases, fatal with just one dose when not used as prescribed. Therefore, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that expired, unwanted, or otherwise unused portions of most of these drugs be disposed of quickly through a take-back program. If such an option is not readily available, FDA recommends that they be flushed down the sink or toilet. The goal of the current investigation was to evaluate the ecological and human-health risks associated with the environmental release of the 15 active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) currently on the FDA "flush list". The evaluation suggests that even when highly conservative assumptions are used-including that the entire API mass supplied for clinical use is flushed, all relevant sources in addition to clinical use of the API are considered, and no metabolic loss, environmental degradation, or dilution of wastewater effluents are used in estimating environmental concentrations-most of these APIs present a negligible eco-toxicological risk, both as individual compounds and as a mixture. For a few of these APIs, additional eco-toxicological data will need to be developed. Using similar conservative assumptions for human-health risks, all 15 APIs present negligible risk through ingestion of water and fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usman Khan
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Raanan A Bloom
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA
| | - James A Nicell
- Department of Civil Engineering & Applied Mechanics, McGill University, 817 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3A 0C3
| | - James P Laurenson
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA.
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7
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Novoa-Luna KA, Mendoza-Zepeda A, Natividad R, Romero R, Galar-Martínez M, Gómez-Oliván LM. Biological hazard evaluation of a pharmaceutical effluent before and after a photo-Fenton treatment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 569-570:830-840. [PMID: 27392336 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the biological hazard of a pharmaceutical effluent before and after treatment. For the former, the determined 96h-LC50 value was 1.2%. The photo-Fenton treatment catalyzed with an iron-pillared clay reduced this parameter by 341.7%. Statistically significant increases with respect to the control group (P<0.05) were observed at 12, 24, 48 and 72h in HPC (50.2, 30.4, 66.9 and 43.3%), LPX (22, 83.2, 62.7 and 59.5%) and PCC (14.6, 23.6, 24.4 and 25.6%) and antioxidant enzymes SOD (29.4, 38.5, 32.7 and 49.5%) and CAT (48.4, 50.3, 38.8 and 46.1%) in Hyalella azteca before treatment. Also increases in damage index were observed before treatment of 53.1, 59.9, 66.6 and 72.1% at 12, 24, 48 and 72h, respectively. After treatment the same biomarkers of oxidative stress decreased with respect to before treatment being to HPC (29.3, 22.5, 41.6 and 31.7%); LPX (14.2, 43.1, 30.7 and 35.5%); PCC (12.6, 21.3, 24.2 and 23.9%); SOD (39.2, 33.9, 49.5 and 37.9%) and CAT (28.6, 35.8, 33.7 and 31.7) at 12, 24, 48 and 72h, respectively (P<0.05). The damage index were decreased at 12, 24, 48 and 72h in 48.9, 57.8, 67.3 and 72.1%, respectively. In conclusion, the obtained results demonstrate the need of performing bioassays in order to characterize an effluent before discharge and not base such a decision only upon current normativity. In addition, it was also concluded that the heterogeneous photo-Fenton process decreases the presence of PCT, oxidative stress, genotoxic damage and LC50 in Hyalella azteca.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Adriana Novoa-Luna
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan s/n. Col. Residencial Colón, 50120 Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Arisbeht Mendoza-Zepeda
- Chemical Engineering Lab., Centro Conjunto de Investigación en Química Sustentable UAEM-UNAM, Carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco Km 14.5, Unidad San Cayetano, Toluca, Estado de México 50200, Mexico
| | - Reyna Natividad
- Chemical Engineering Lab., Centro Conjunto de Investigación en Química Sustentable UAEM-UNAM, Carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco Km 14.5, Unidad San Cayetano, Toluca, Estado de México 50200, Mexico
| | - Rubi Romero
- Chemical Engineering Lab., Centro Conjunto de Investigación en Química Sustentable UAEM-UNAM, Carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco Km 14.5, Unidad San Cayetano, Toluca, Estado de México 50200, Mexico
| | - Marcela Galar-Martínez
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Acuática, Departamento de Farmacia, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos, Av. Wilfrido Massieu s/n y Cerrada de Manuel Stampa, Col. Industrial Vallejo, C.P. 007700 México, D.F., Mexico
| | - Leobardo Manuel Gómez-Oliván
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Paseo Colón intersección Paseo Tollocan s/n. Col. Residencial Colón, 50120 Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico.
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8
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McCall AK, Bade R, Kinyua J, Lai FY, Thai PK, Covaci A, Bijlsma L, van Nuijs ALN, Ort C. Critical review on the stability of illicit drugs in sewers and wastewater samples. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 88:933-947. [PMID: 26618807 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) applies advanced analytical methods to quantify drug residues in wastewater with the aim to estimate illicit drug use at the population level. Transformation processes during transport in sewers (chemical and biological reactors) and storage of wastewater samples before analysis are expected to change concentrations of different drugs to varying degrees. Ignoring transformation for drugs with low to medium stability will lead to an unknown degree of systematic under- or overestimation of drug use, which should be avoided. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge related to the stability of commonly investigated drugs and, furthermore, suggest a more effective approach to future experiments. From over 100 WBE studies, around 50 mentioned the importance of stability and 24 included tests in wastewater. Most focused on in-sample stability (i.e., sample preparation, preservation and storage) and some extrapolated to in-sewer stability (i.e., during transport in real sewers). While consistent results were reported for rather stable compounds (e.g., MDMA and methamphetamine), a varying range of stability under different or similar conditions was observed for other compounds (e.g., cocaine, amphetamine and morphine). Wastewater composition can vary considerably over time, and different conditions prevail in different sewer systems. In summary, this indicates that more systematic studies are needed to: i) cover the range of possible conditions in sewers and ii) compare results more objectively. To facilitate the latter, we propose a set of parameters that should be reported for in-sewer stability experiments. Finally, a best practice of sample collection, preservation, and preparation before analysis is suggested in order to minimize transformation during these steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Kathrin McCall
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Richard Bade
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat, E-12071 Castellón, Spain
| | - Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Centre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp (UA), Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Foon Yin Lai
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Rd., Coopers Plains, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Phong K Thai
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Rd., Coopers Plains, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia; Queensland University of Technology, International Laboratory for Air Quality & Health, 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Centre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp (UA), Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat, E-12071 Castellón, Spain
| | - Alexander L N van Nuijs
- Toxicological Centre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp (UA), Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Christoph Ort
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
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Mastroianni N, Postigo C, López de Alda M, Viana M, Rodríguez A, Alastuey A, Querol X, Barceló D. Comprehensive monitoring of the occurrence of 22 drugs of abuse and transformation products in airborne particulate matter in the city of Barcelona. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 532:344-352. [PMID: 26081737 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In recent years monitoring the presence of psychotropic compounds in wastewater has been proposed as a tool to estimate community drug use. Measurement of drugs of abuse (DAs) in airborne particulate is currently being explored as an additional tool to evaluate drug use patterns in time and space, and identify potential emission sources. In this study, we comprehensively monitor the occurrence of 22 licit and illicit DAs and transformation products, belonging to 6 different chemical groups, in airborne particulate matter (PM10) in the city of Barcelona. In order to study spatial and temporal variations, samples were collected from 12 different selected locations on one weekday (Wednesday) and one weekend day (Saturday), during five consecutive weeks. A previously developed analytical methodology, based on pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) determination, was adapted for analysis of the target compounds with satisfactory performance, ensuring reliability of results. Among the investigated compounds, cannabinol (CBN), cocaine (COC), and methamphetamine (MA) were found to be the most ubiquitous and abundant compounds in PM10 with concentrations ranging from 0.7pg/m(3) (MA) to 6020pg/m(3) (CBN). Significant differences in total DA concentrations in PM10 were observed across sampling days and locations. DA emissions were identified in highly densely populated areas, where popular commercial and nightlife zones are located. Psychoactive effects due to inhalation of measured concentrations are probably negligible; however, potential health effects due to chronic exposure have not been explored yet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Mastroianni
- Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Postigo
- Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miren López de Alda
- Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Mar Viana
- Department of Geosciences, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Aureli Rodríguez
- Department of Interior, Generalitat de Catalunya, Edifici Diputació 355, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andrés Alastuey
- Department of Geosciences, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Querol
- Department of Geosciences, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Damià Barceló
- Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), C/ Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, Edifici H2O, Emili Grahit 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
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10
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Catalá M, Domínguez-Morueco N, Migens A, Molina R, Martínez F, Valcárcel Y, Mastroianni N, López de Alda M, Barceló D, Segura Y. Elimination of drugs of abuse and their toxicity from natural waters by photo-Fenton treatment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 520:198-205. [PMID: 25817756 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2014] [Revised: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates the elimination of drugs of abuse from six different chemical classes and their metabolites in natural fluvial waters (nearby the output of a sewage system). Mineralization of these substances and toxicological characterization before and after treatment by a heterogeneous photo-Fenton system has been evaluated. This advanced oxidation technology was able to significantly reduce the concentration of the drugs of abuse in all the tested conditions (different hydrogen peroxide and catalyst loadings). However, toxicological analyses measured as inhibition of fern spore mitochondrial activity, showed only a complete elimination of acute and chronic toxicity when a higher solid catalyst loading was used (0.6 g/L). A lower catalyst loading of 0.2 g/L was not enough for toxicity elimination. These results evidence the need for combining toxicological tests and chemical analyses in order to establish the effectiveness of the water treatment technologies based on advanced oxidation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Catalá
- Department of Biology and Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry, School of Experimental Sciences and Technology, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/ Tulipán s/n, E-28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - N Domínguez-Morueco
- Department of Biology and Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry, School of Experimental Sciences and Technology, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/ Tulipán s/n, E-28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - A Migens
- Department of Biology and Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry, School of Experimental Sciences and Technology, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/ Tulipán s/n, E-28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - R Molina
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Technology, School of Experimental Sciences and Technology, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/ Tulipán s/n, E-28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - F Martínez
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Technology, School of Experimental Sciences and Technology, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/ Tulipán s/n, E-28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - Y Valcárcel
- Research Group in Environmental Health and Ecotoxicology (ToxAmb), Department of Medicine and Surgery, Psychology, Preventive Medicine, Public Health, Immunology and Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Rey Juan Carlos University, Avda. Atenas, s/n, E-28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - N Mastroianni
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, E-08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - M López de Alda
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, E-08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - D Barceló
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, E-08034 Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), H2O Building, Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Girona, Emili Grahit 101, 17003 Girona, Spain
| | - Y Segura
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Technology, School of Experimental Sciences and Technology, Rey Juan Carlos University, C/ Tulipán s/n, E-28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain.
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Lai WWP, Lin HHH, Lin AYC. TiO2 photocatalytic degradation and transformation of oxazaphosphorine drugs in an aqueous environment. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2015; 287:133-141. [PMID: 25644030 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.01.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the TiO2 photocatalytic degradation and transformation of the oxazaphosphorines ifosfamide (IFO), cyclophosphamide (CP) and trofosfamide (TRO). Under the optimum conditions of TiO2=100mg/L, IFO=100μg/L and solution pH=5.5, IFO was completely removed within 10min (k=0.433min(-1)). The results indicated that OHfree radicals generated by valence holes in the bulk solution were the predominant species for the degradation of IFO. At higher initial concentrations of oxazaphosphorines (20mg/L), >50% of TOC remained after 6h of reaction time, indicating that parent compounds were transformed to byproducts, which exhibit higher Microtox acute toxicities; chlorinated byproducts were likely the source of toxicity. Photocatalytic degradation pathways of the three oxazaphosphorines were proposed. IFO, CP and TRO follow very similar pathways and bond-breaking processes: ketonization and breaking of the CCl bond, the PN bond and the CN bond (N-dechloroethylation). Chloride (Cl(-)) release is likely the first and primary step in the decomposition process. Several of the identified byproducts were also metabolites, which implies that photocatalytic oxidation proceeds through pathways that are similar to metabolic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Webber Wei-Po Lai
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71-Chou-shan Road, Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hank Hui-Hsiang Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71-Chou-shan Road, Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Angela Yu-Chen Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71-Chou-shan Road, Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC.
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González-Mariño I, Quintana JB, Rodríguez I, Cores M, Cela R. Transformation of methadone and its main human metabolite, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), during water chlorination. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 68:759-770. [PMID: 25462780 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.10.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Revised: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The reaction kinetics and reaction pathway of methadone and its main human metabolite, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP) in chlorine containing waters were investigated by direct injection of individual reaction time aliquots in a liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) system. Factors potentially affecting the rate of the reaction were evaluated in detail by means of a Box-Behnken experimental design in which methadone and EDDP were considered separately. Sample pH and chlorine concentration turned out to be the two significant variables, enhancing the kinetics with an increase in their values. Transformation products (TPs) were first searched over sample chromatograms by comparing control, blank and time zero samples to aliquots stopped at different reaction times. Their tentative identity was further inferred by generating their empirical formulae from their accurate single MS spectra and, subsequently, by interpreting their fragmentation pattern from their tandem MS (MS/MS) spectra. In total, 8 TPs, arising from intra-molecular cyclation, dehydrogenation, oxidation and chlorination, could be detected in the case of methadone, one of them being the EDDP and another 3 coming from EDDP, so being common to both the precursor drug and its metabolite. A tentative transformation pathway was proposed, and the reaction was evaluated under potential real circumstances by chlorinating two different river samples. In this way, it was possible to demonstrate that its extension is highly affected by the content of dissolved organic matter, so both compounds were highly or completely transformed in samples with a low anthropogenic impact, whereas they were considerably more stable in waters with a high concentration of organic matter. Finally, the ecotoxicity of precursors and transformation species was predicted by software tools, revealing that, in some cases, the toxicological responses displayed by the TPs were up to 100 times higher than those of methadone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iria González-Mariño
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Via G. La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
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13
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Hernández F, Ibáñez M, Bade R, Bijlsma L, Sancho J. Investigation of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in waters by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Trends Analyt Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2014.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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14
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Raoof H, Mielczarek P, Michalow KA, Rekas M, Silberring J. Synthesis of metabolites of paracetamol and cocaine via photooxidation on TiO2 catalyzed by UV light. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2013; 118:49-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2012.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Revised: 10/24/2012] [Accepted: 10/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Ochiai T, Fujishima A. Photoelectrochemical properties of TiO2 photocatalyst and its applications for environmental purification. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY C-PHOTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 347] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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16
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Valcárcel Y, Martínez F, González-Alonso S, Segura Y, Catalá M, Molina R, Montero-Rubio JC, Mastroianni N, López de Alda M, Postigo C, Barceló D. Drugs of abuse in surface and tap waters of the Tagus River basin: heterogeneous photo-Fenton process is effective in their degradation. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2012; 41:35-43. [PMID: 22306426 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2011.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2011] [Revised: 12/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/23/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This work investigates for the first time the occurrence of drugs of abuse and metabolites in surface waters from the Tagus River on its way through the province of Toledo (downstream Madrid metropolitan area) and in drinking waters in two nearby cities. Some of the studied drugs are used for therapeutic purposes but they can also be consumed as illicit drugs. The results of this preliminary study have revealed the presence of 12 out of 22 drugs of abuse analyzed in fluvial water at concentrations ranging from 1.14 to 40.9 ng/L. The largest concentrations corresponded to the anxiolytics diazepam and lorazepam, the cocaine metabolite benzoilecgonine, the amphetamine-like compound ephedrine, and the methadone metabolite EDDP. All these substances, except for lorazepam, were detected in all the sampling points. Traces of methadone and ephedrine were detected in some samples of tap water. Despite the low concentrations of these pollutants, effects on wildlife or human health cannot be disregarded, especially on vulnerable population. Thus, the treatment of these substances using a heterogeneous photo-Fenton process has been evaluated, rendering a remarkable effectiveness for their degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Valcárcel
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Public Health, Immunology and Medical Microbiology. Faculty of Health Sciences, Rey Juan Carlos University. Avda. Atenas s/n. E-28922 Alcorcón (Madrid), Spain.
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Chemical Evaluation of Water Treatment Processes by LC–(Q)TOF-MS. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-53810-9.00006-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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