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Jecklin S, Shen Y, Gout A, Suter D, Calvet L, Zingg L, Straub J, Cavalcanti NA, Farshad M, Fürnstahl P, Esfandiari H. Domain adaptation strategies for 3D reconstruction of the lumbar spine using real fluoroscopy data. Med Image Anal 2024; 98:103322. [PMID: 39197301 DOI: 10.1016/j.media.2024.103322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 09/01/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we address critical barriers hindering the widespread adoption of surgical navigation in orthopedic surgeries due to limitations such as time constraints, cost implications, radiation concerns, and integration within the surgical workflow. Recently, our work X23D showed an approach for generating 3D anatomical models of the spine from only a few intraoperative fluoroscopic images. This approach negates the need for conventional registration-based surgical navigation by creating a direct intraoperative 3D reconstruction of the anatomy. Despite these strides, the practical application of X23D has been limited by a significant domain gap between synthetic training data and real intraoperative images. In response, we devised a novel data collection protocol to assemble a paired dataset consisting of synthetic and real fluoroscopic images captured from identical perspectives. Leveraging this unique dataset, we refined our deep learning model through transfer learning, effectively bridging the domain gap between synthetic and real X-ray data. We introduce an innovative approach combining style transfer with the curated paired dataset. This method transforms real X-ray images into the synthetic domain, enabling the in-silico-trained X23D model to achieve high accuracy in real-world settings. Our results demonstrated that the refined model can rapidly generate accurate 3D reconstructions of the entire lumbar spine from as few as three intraoperative fluoroscopic shots. The enhanced model reached a sufficient accuracy, achieving an 84% F1 score, equating to the benchmark set solely by synthetic data in previous research. Moreover, with an impressive computational time of just 81.1 ms, our approach offers real-time capabilities, vital for successful integration into active surgical procedures. By investigating optimal imaging setups and view angle dependencies, we have further validated the practicality and reliability of our system in a clinical environment. Our research represents a promising advancement in intraoperative 3D reconstruction. This innovation has the potential to enhance intraoperative surgical planning, navigation, and surgical robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Jecklin
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Youyang Shen
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Amandine Gout
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Suter
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lilian Calvet
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Zingg
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jennifer Straub
- Universitätsklinik für Orthopädie, AKH Wien, Währinger Gürtel 18-20, 1090 Wien, Austria
| | - Nicola Alessandro Cavalcanti
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mazda Farshad
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Fürnstahl
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hooman Esfandiari
- Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
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Grunert R, Snyderman CH, Gardner P, Busse M, Ahner L, Kropla F, Möbius R, Jung S, Scholz S, Güresir E, Winkler D. NextLens-The Next Generation of Surgical Navigation: Proof of Concept of an Augmented Reality System for Surgical Navigation. J Neurol Surg B Skull Base 2024; 85:363-369. [PMID: 38966300 PMCID: PMC11221910 DOI: 10.1055/a-2083-7766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective The aim of this work was the development of an augmented reality system including the functionality of conventional surgical navigation systems. Methods An application software for the Augmented Reality System HoloLens 2 from Microsoft was developed. It detects the position of the patient as well as position of surgical instruments in real time and displays it within the two-dimensional (2D) magnetic resonance imaging or computed tomography (CT) images. The surgical pointer instrument, including a pattern that is recognized by the HoloLens 2 sensors, was created with three-dimensional (3D) printing. The technical concept was demonstrated at a cadaver skull to identify anatomical landmarks. Results With the help of the HoloLens 2 and its sensors, the real-time position of the surgical pointer instrument could be shown. The position of the 3D-printed pointer with colored pattern could be recognized within 2D-CT images when stationary and in motion at a cadaver skull. Feasibility could be demonstrated for the clinical application of transsphenoidal pituitary surgery. Conclusion The HoloLens 2 has a high potential for use as a surgical navigation system. With subsequent studies, a further accuracy evaluation will be performed receiving valid data for comparison with conventional surgical navigation systems. In addition to transsphenoidal pituitary surgery, it could be also applied for other surgical disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronny Grunert
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Fraunhofer Plastics Technology Center Oberlausitz, Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology, Zittau, Germany
| | - Carl-Henry Snyderman
- Center for Skull Base Surgery, University Pittsburgh, Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Paul Gardner
- Center for Skull Base Surgery, University Pittsburgh, Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Michel Busse
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Lukas Ahner
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Fabian Kropla
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Robert Möbius
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Svenja Jung
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sebastian Scholz
- Fraunhofer Plastics Technology Center Oberlausitz, Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology, Zittau, Germany
| | - Erdem Güresir
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dirk Winkler
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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Li CR, Chang YJ, Lin MS, Tsou HK. Augmented Reality in Spine Surgery: A Case Study of Atlantoaxial Instrumentation in Os Odontoideum. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2024; 60:874. [PMID: 38929491 PMCID: PMC11205926 DOI: 10.3390/medicina60060874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Despite advancement in surgical innovation, C1-C2 fixation remains challenging due to risks of screw malposition and vertebral artery (VA) injuries. Traditional image-based navigation, while useful, often demands that surgeons frequently shift their attention to external monitors, potentially causing distractions. In this article, we introduce a microscope-based augmented reality (AR) navigation system that projects both anatomical information and real-time navigation images directly onto the surgical field. In the present case report, we discuss a 37-year-old female who suffered from os odontoideum with C1-C2 subluxation. Employing AR-assisted navigation, the patient underwent the successful posterior instrumentation of C1-C2. The integrated AR system offers direct visualization, potentially minimizing surgical distractions. In our opinion, as AR technology advances, its adoption in surgical practices and education is anticipated to expand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Ruei Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Institute, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 407, Taiwan; (C.-R.L.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.-S.L.)
| | - Yu-Jui Chang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Institute, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 407, Taiwan; (C.-R.L.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.-S.L.)
| | - Mao-Shih Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Institute, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 407, Taiwan; (C.-R.L.); (Y.-J.C.); (M.-S.L.)
| | - Hsi-Kai Tsou
- Functional Neurosurgery Division, Neurological Institute, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 407, Taiwan
- Department of Rehabilitation, Jen-Teh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Miaoli 356, Taiwan
- Department of Post-Baccalaureate Medicine, College of Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
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Jang Y, Lim S, Lee S, Je LG, Kim T, Joo S, Seo J, Lee D, Koh JC. Clinical Application of an Augmented Reality Navigation System for Transforaminal Epidural Injection: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Clin Med 2024; 13:1992. [PMID: 38610758 PMCID: PMC11012780 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13071992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Objectives: Augmented reality (AR) navigation systems are emerging to simplify and enhance the precision of medical procedures. Lumbosacral transforaminal epidural injection is a commonly performed procedure for the treatment and diagnosis of radiculopathy. Accurate needle placement while avoiding critical structures remains a challenge. For this purpose, we conducted a randomized controlled trial for our augmented reality navigation system. Methods: This randomized controlled study involved 28 patients, split between a traditional C-arm guided group (control) and an AR navigation guided group (AR-NAVI), to compare procedure efficiency and radiation exposure. The AR-NAVI group used a real-time tracking system displaying spinal structure and needle position on an AR head-mounted display. The procedural time and C-arm usage (radiation exposure) were measured. Results: All patients underwent successful procedures without complications. The AR-NAVI group demonstrated significantly reduced times and C-arm usage for needle entry to the target point (58.57 ± 33.31 vs. 124.91 ± 41.14, p < 0.001 and 3.79 ± 1.97 vs. 8.86 ± 3.94, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The use of the AR navigation system significantly improved procedure efficiency and safety by reducing time and radiation exposure, suggesting a promising direction for future enhancements and validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yookyung Jang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea; (Y.J.); (S.L.); (L.G.J.); (T.K.)
| | - Sunghwan Lim
- Center for Healthcare Robotics, Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea; (S.L.); (D.L.)
| | - Sunhee Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea; (Y.J.); (S.L.); (L.G.J.); (T.K.)
| | - Lee Gyeong Je
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea; (Y.J.); (S.L.); (L.G.J.); (T.K.)
| | - Taesan Kim
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea; (Y.J.); (S.L.); (L.G.J.); (T.K.)
| | - Subin Joo
- Department of Medical Assistant Robot, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, Daegu 42994, Republic of Korea; (S.J.); (J.S.)
| | - Joonho Seo
- Department of Medical Assistant Robot, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, Daegu 42994, Republic of Korea; (S.J.); (J.S.)
| | - Deukhee Lee
- Center for Healthcare Robotics, Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea; (S.L.); (D.L.)
| | - Jae Chul Koh
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea; (Y.J.); (S.L.); (L.G.J.); (T.K.)
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Li CR, Shen CC, Yang MY, Lee CH. Intraoperative augmented reality in minimally invasive spine surgery: A case report. Asian J Surg 2023:S1015-9584(23)00119-7. [PMID: 36732188 DOI: 10.1016/j.asjsur.2023.01.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Ruei Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Institute, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chiung-Chyi Shen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Institute, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Meng-Yin Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Institute, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Hsin Lee
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Institute, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.
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Micko A, Minchev G, Wurzer A, Kronreif G, Wolfsberger S. A Patient-Specific Reference Tracker for Noninvasive Electromagnetic Navigation of Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery. Oper Neurosurg (Hagerstown) 2022; 23:499-504. [DOI: 10.1227/ons.0000000000000383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Tabarestani TQ, Sykes D, Murphy KR, Wang TY, Shaffrey CI, Goodwin CR, Horne P, Than KD, Abd-El-Barr MM. Beyond Placement of Pedicle Screws - New Applications for Robotics in Spine Surgery: A Multi-Surgeon, Single-Institution Experience. Front Surg 2022; 9:889906. [PMID: 35784931 PMCID: PMC9243459 DOI: 10.3389/fsurg.2022.889906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Interest in robotic-assisted spine surgery has grown as surgeon comfort and technology has evolved to maximize benefits of time saving and precision. However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has currently only approved robotics to assist in determining the ideal trajectory for pedicle screw placement after extensive research supporting its efficacy and efficiency. To be considered a durable and effective option, robotics need to expand beyond the indication of just placing pedicle screws. This article aims to illustrate a multi-surgeon, single-institution experience with unique applications of robotic technologies in spine surgery. We will explore accessing Kambin's Triangle in percutaneous transforaminal interbody fusion (percLIF), iliac fixation in metastatic cancer, and sacroiliac (SI) fusions. Each of these topics will be covered in depth with associated background information and subsequent discussion. We show that with proper understanding of its limitations, robots can help surgeons perform difficult surgeries in a safe manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Troy Q Tabarestani
- Duke University School of Medicine, Duke University Hospital, Durham, Durham, NC
| | - David Sykes
- Duke University School of Medicine, Duke University Hospital, Durham, Durham, NC
| | - Kelly R Murphy
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Hospital, Durham, Durham, NC
| | - Timothy Y Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Hospital, Durham, Durham, NC
| | | | - C Rory Goodwin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Hospital, Durham, Durham, NC
| | - Phillip Horne
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Duke University Hospital, Durham, Durham, NC
| | - Khoi D Than
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Hospital, Durham, Durham, NC
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Lee S, Joung S, Ha HG, Lee JH, Park KH, Kim S, Nam K, Lee J, Lee HJ, Oh CW, Park I, Hong J. 3D Image-Guided Robotic System for Bone Fracture Reduction. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2022.3150880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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9
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Farshad M, Fürnstahl P, Spirig JM. First in man in-situ augmented reality pedicle screw navigation. NORTH AMERICAN SPINE SOCIETY JOURNAL 2021; 6:100065. [PMID: 35141630 PMCID: PMC8819976 DOI: 10.1016/j.xnsj.2021.100065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Background Augmented reality (AR) is a rising technology gaining increasing utility in medicine. By superimposing the surgical site and the operator's visual field with computer-generated information, it has the potential to enhance the cognitive skills of surgeons. This is the report of the first in man case with "direct holographic navigation" as part of a randomized controlled trial. Case description A pointing instrument was equipped with a sterile fiducial marker, which was used to obtain a digital representation of the intraoperative bony anatomy of the lumbar spine. Subsequently, a previously validated registration method was applied to superimpose the surgery plan with the intraoperative anatomy. The registration result is shown in situ as a 3D AR hologram of the preoperative 3D vertebra model with the planned screw trajectory and entry point for validation and approval by the surgeon. After achieving alignment with the surgery plan, a borehole is drilled and the pedicle screw placed. Postoperativ computer tomography was used to measure accuracy of this novel method for surgical navigation. Outcome Correct screw positions entirely within bone were documented with a postoperative CT, with an accuracy similar to current standard of care methods for surgical navigation. The patient was mobilized uneventfully on the first postoperative day with little pain medication and dismissed on the fourth postoperative day. Conclusion This first in man report of direct AR navigation demonstrates feasibility in vivo. The continuation of this randomized controlled study will evaluate the value of this novel technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mazda Farshad
- Spine Division, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Forchstrasse 340, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
- Corresponding author.
| | - Philipp Fürnstahl
- ROCS: Research in Orthopedic Computer Science, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Forchstrasse 340, 8008, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - José Miguel Spirig
- Spine Division, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Forchstrasse 340, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
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Wurzer A, Minchev G, Cervera-Martinez C, Micko A, Kronreif G, Wolfsberger S. The endonasal patient reference tracker: a novel solution for accurate noninvasive electromagnetic neuronavigation. J Neurosurg 2021; 134:1951-1958. [PMID: 32679564 DOI: 10.3171/2020.4.jns20394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Electromagnetic (EM) navigation provides the advantages of continuous guidance and tip-tracking of instruments. The current solutions for patient reference trackers are suboptimal, as they are either invasively screwed to the bone or less accurate if attached to the skin. The authors present a novel EM reference method with the tracker rigidly but not invasively positioned inside the nasal cavity. METHODS The nasal tracker (NT) consists of the EM coil array of the AxiEM tracker plugged into a nasal tamponade, which is then inserted into the inferior nasal meatus. Initially, a proof-of-concept study was performed on two cadaveric skull bases. The stability of the NT was assessed in simulated surgical situations, for example, prone, supine, and lateral patient positioning and skin traction. A deviation ≤ 2 mm was judged sufficiently accurate for clinical trial. Thus, a feasibility study was performed in the clinical setting. Positional changes of the NT and a standard skin-adhesive tracker (ST) relative to a ground-truth reference tracker were recorded throughout routine surgical procedures. The accuracy of the NT and ST was compared at different stages of surgery. RESULTS Ex vivo, the NT proved to be highly stable in all simulated surgical situations (median deviation 0.4 mm, range 0.0-2.0 mm). In 13 routine clinical cases, the NT was significantly more stable than the ST (median deviation at procedure end 1.3 mm, range 0.5-3.0 mm vs 4.0 mm, range 1.2-11.2 mm, p = 0.002). The loss of accuracy of the ST was highest during draping and flap fixation. CONCLUSIONS Application of the EM endonasal patient tracker was found to be feasible with high procedural stability ex vivo as well as in the clinical setting. This innovation combines the advantages of high precision and noninvasiveness and may, in the future, enhance EM navigation for neurosurgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayguel Wurzer
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University Vienna; and
| | - Georgi Minchev
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University Vienna; and
| | | | | | - Gernot Kronreif
- 2Austrian Center of Medical Innovation and Technology, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
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Fanhao M, Xiaodong X, Bo Q, Lejun X, Yu S, Liang Z, Tingting J, Rui Z, Depeng Z, Ran A, Yu T, Suixin H, Zheng Z, Wenjun Y, Haizhong Z. A new multimodal, image-guided, robot-assisted, interstitial brachytherapy for the treatment of head and neck tumors-A preliminary study. Int J Med Robot 2020; 16:1-5. [PMID: 32500663 DOI: 10.1002/rcs.2133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interstitial brachytherapy (BT) is becoming an accepted treatment option for head and neck cancer patients for whom surgery poses high risks. Multimodal, image-guided, robotic surgery has the potential to allow precise seed implantation into tumors. Our aim was to introduce a new multimodal, image-guided surgical robot during the performance of interstitial BT for the treatment of tumors in the head and neck regions. METHODS Clinical data for three patients were analyzed, retrospectively; patients had received 125 I seed implantations from July 2019 to October 2019. Multimodal, image-guided, robotic surgery was performed in all patients. Postoperative computed tomography data were imported to software to evaluate the accuracy of the seed position and the operation times. RESULTS The mean placement error of the 125 I seed was 1.9 ± 0.74 mm. The mean operation time is 47 minutes. CONCLUSION The experimental results showed that the Remebot has promise for use during BT for the head and neck.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Fanhao
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xue Xiaodong
- Radiology Department, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Qiao Bo
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xing Lejun
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Song Yu
- Department of Prosthodontics, Beijing Citident Stomatology Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zhu Liang
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jia Tingting
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zhao Rui
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zhao Depeng
- Robotics Institute, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Japan
| | - An Ran
- Clinical Engineering Department, Beijing Baihui Weikang Technology Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Tian Yu
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Hu Suixin
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zhou Zheng
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Wenjun
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zhang Haizhong
- Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, PLA Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
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