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Stanton E, Sheridan S, Urata M, Chai Y. From Bedside to Bench and Back: Advancing Our Understanding of the Pathophysiology of Cleft Palate and Implications for the Future. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 2024; 61:759-773. [PMID: 36457208 DOI: 10.1177/10556656221142098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To provide a comprehensive understanding of the pathophysiology of cleft palate (CP) and future perspectives. DESIGN Literature review. SETTING Setting varied across studies by level of care and geographical locations. INTERVENTIONS No interventions were performed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Primary outcome measures were to summarize our current understanding of palatogenesis in humans and animal models, the pathophysiology of CP, and potential future treatment modalities. RESULTS Animal research has provided considerable insight into the pathophysiology, molecular and cellular mechanisms of CP that have allowed for the development of novel treatment strategies. However, much work has yet to be done to connect our mouse model investigations and discoveries to CP in humans. The success of innovative strategies for tissue regeneration in mice provides promise for an exciting new avenue for improved and more targeted management of cleft care with precision medicine in patients. However, significant barriers to clinical translation remain. Among the most notable challenges include the differences in some aspects of palatogenesis and tissue repair between mice and humans, suggesting that potential therapies that have worked in animal models may not provide similar benefits to humans. CONCLUSIONS Increased translation of pathophysiological and tissue regeneration studies to clinical trials will bridge a wide gap in knowledge between animal models and human disease. By enhancing interaction between basic scientists and clinicians, and employing our animal model findings of disease mechanisms in concert with what we glean in the clinic, we can generate a more targeted and improved treatment algorithm for patients with CP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloise Stanton
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Samuel Sheridan
- Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Mark Urata
- Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Plastic and Maxillofacial Surgery, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Yang Chai
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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2
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Singh AK, Allington G, Viviano S, McGee S, Kiziltug E, Ma S, Zhao S, Mekbib KY, Shohfi JP, Duy PQ, DeSpenza T, Furey CG, Reeves BC, Smith H, Sousa AMM, Cherskov A, Allocco A, Nelson-Williams C, Haider S, Rizvi SRA, Alper SL, Sestan N, Shimelis H, Walsh LK, Lifton RP, Moreno-De-Luca A, Jin SC, Kruszka P, Deniz E, Kahle KT. A novel SMARCC1 BAFopathy implicates neural progenitor epigenetic dysregulation in human hydrocephalus. Brain 2024; 147:1553-1570. [PMID: 38128548 PMCID: PMC10994532 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awad405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrocephalus, characterized by cerebral ventriculomegaly, is the most common disorder requiring brain surgery in children. Recent studies have implicated SMARCC1, a component of the BRG1-associated factor (BAF) chromatin remodelling complex, as a candidate congenital hydrocephalus gene. However, SMARCC1 variants have not been systematically examined in a large patient cohort or conclusively linked with a human syndrome. Moreover, congenital hydrocephalus-associated SMARCC1 variants have not been functionally validated or mechanistically studied in vivo. Here, we aimed to assess the prevalence of SMARCC1 variants in an expanded patient cohort, describe associated clinical and radiographic phenotypes, and assess the impact of Smarcc1 depletion in a novel Xenopus tropicalis model of congenital hydrocephalus. To do this, we performed a genetic association study using whole-exome sequencing from a cohort consisting of 2697 total ventriculomegalic trios, including patients with neurosurgically-treated congenital hydrocephalus, that total 8091 exomes collected over 7 years (2016-23). A comparison control cohort consisted of 1798 exomes from unaffected siblings of patients with autism spectrum disorder and their unaffected parents were sourced from the Simons Simplex Collection. Enrichment and impact on protein structure were assessed in identified variants. Effects on the human fetal brain transcriptome were examined with RNA-sequencing and Smarcc1 knockdowns were generated in Xenopus and studied using optical coherence tomography imaging, in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence. SMARCC1 surpassed genome-wide significance thresholds, yielding six rare, protein-altering de novo variants localized to highly conserved residues in key functional domains. Patients exhibited hydrocephalus with aqueductal stenosis; corpus callosum abnormalities, developmental delay, and cardiac defects were also common. Xenopus knockdowns recapitulated both aqueductal stenosis and cardiac defects and were rescued by wild-type but not patient-specific variant SMARCC1. Hydrocephalic SMARCC1-variant human fetal brain and Smarcc1-variant Xenopus brain exhibited a similarly altered expression of key genes linked to midgestational neurogenesis, including the transcription factors NEUROD2 and MAB21L2. These results suggest de novo variants in SMARCC1 cause a novel human BAFopathy we term 'SMARCC1-associated developmental dysgenesis syndrome', characterized by variable presence of cerebral ventriculomegaly, aqueductal stenosis, developmental delay and a variety of structural brain or cardiac defects. These data underscore the importance of SMARCC1 and the BAF chromatin remodelling complex for human brain morphogenesis and provide evidence for a 'neural stem cell' paradigm of congenital hydrocephalus pathogenesis. These results highlight utility of trio-based whole-exome sequencing for identifying pathogenic variants in sporadic congenital structural brain disorders and suggest whole-exome sequencing may be a valuable adjunct in clinical management of congenital hydrocephalus patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrita K Singh
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Garrett Allington
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Genetics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Stephen Viviano
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | | | - Emre Kiziltug
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Shaojie Ma
- Department of Genetics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Shujuan Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Departments of Genetics and Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Kedous Y Mekbib
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - John P Shohfi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Phan Q Duy
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Tyrone DeSpenza
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Charuta G Furey
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Benjamin C Reeves
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Hannah Smith
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - André M M Sousa
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Adriana Cherskov
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - August Allocco
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | | | - Shozeb Haider
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, University College London School of Pharmacy, London, WC1N 1AX, UK
- UCL Centre for Advanced Research Computing, University College London, London, WC1H 9RN, UK
| | - Syed R A Rizvi
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, University College London School of Pharmacy, London, WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Seth L Alper
- Division of Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Division of Nephrology and Vascular Biology Research Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Nenad Sestan
- Department of Genetics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Hermela Shimelis
- Department of Radiology, Neuroradiology section, Kingston Health Sciences Centre, Queen's University Faculty of Health Sciences, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lauren K Walsh
- Department of Radiology, Neuroradiology section, Kingston Health Sciences Centre, Queen's University Faculty of Health Sciences, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Richard P Lifton
- Laboratory of Human Genetics and Genomics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Andres Moreno-De-Luca
- Department of Radiology, Neuroradiology section, Kingston Health Sciences Centre, Queen's University Faculty of Health Sciences, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Radiology, Diagnostic Medicine Institute, Geisinger, Danville, PA, 17822, USA
| | - Sheng Chih Jin
- Departments of Genetics and Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | | | - Engin Deniz
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Kristopher T Kahle
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Division of Genetics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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3
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Dreier MR, Walia J, de la Serna IL. Targeting SWI/SNF Complexes in Cancer: Pharmacological Approaches and Implications. EPIGENOMES 2024; 8:7. [PMID: 38390898 PMCID: PMC10885108 DOI: 10.3390/epigenomes8010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 01/28/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
SWI/SNF enzymes are heterogeneous multi-subunit complexes that utilize the energy from ATP hydrolysis to remodel chromatin structure, facilitating transcription, DNA replication, and repair. In mammalian cells, distinct sub-complexes, including cBAF, ncBAF, and PBAF exhibit varying subunit compositions and have different genomic functions. Alterations in the SWI/SNF complex and sub-complex functions are a prominent feature in cancer, making them attractive targets for therapeutic intervention. Current strategies in cancer therapeutics involve the use of pharmacological agents designed to bind and disrupt the activity of SWI/SNF complexes or specific sub-complexes. Inhibitors targeting the catalytic subunits, SMARCA4/2, and small molecules binding SWI/SNF bromodomains are the primary approaches for suppressing SWI/SNF function. Proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) were generated by the covalent linkage of the bromodomain or ATPase-binding ligand to an E3 ligase-binding moiety. This engineered connection promotes the degradation of specific SWI/SNF subunits, enhancing and extending the impact of this pharmacological intervention in some cases. Extensive preclinical studies have underscored the therapeutic potential of these drugs across diverse cancer types. Encouragingly, some of these agents have progressed from preclinical research to clinical trials, indicating a promising stride toward the development of effective cancer therapeutics targeting SWI/SNF complex and sub-complex functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan R Dreier
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, 3000 Arlington Ave, Toledo 43614, OH, USA
| | - Jasmine Walia
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, 3000 Arlington Ave, Toledo 43614, OH, USA
| | - Ivana L de la Serna
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo College of Medicine and Life Sciences, 3000 Arlington Ave, Toledo 43614, OH, USA
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4
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Lomeli C. S, Kristin B. A. Epigenetic regulation of craniofacial development and disease. Birth Defects Res 2024; 116:e2271. [PMID: 37964651 PMCID: PMC10872612 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.2271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The formation of the craniofacial complex relies on proper neural crest development. The gene regulatory networks (GRNs) and signaling pathways orchestrating this process have been extensively studied. These GRNs and signaling cascades are tightly regulated as alterations to any stage of neural crest development can lead to common congenital birth defects, including multiple syndromes affecting facial morphology as well as nonsyndromic facial defects, such as cleft lip with or without cleft palate. Epigenetic factors add a hierarchy to the regulation of transcriptional networks and influence the spatiotemporal activation or repression of specific gene regulatory cascades; however less is known about their exact mechanisms in controlling precise gene regulation. AIMS In this review, we discuss the role of epigenetic factors during neural crest development, specifically during craniofacial development and how compromised activities of these regulators contribute to congenital defects that affect the craniofacial complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shull Lomeli C.
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Artinger Kristin B.
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota School of Dentistry, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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5
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Shpargel KB, Quickstad G. SETting up the genome: KMT2D and KDM6A genomic function in the Kabuki syndrome craniofacial developmental disorder. Birth Defects Res 2023; 115:1885-1898. [PMID: 37800171 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.2253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Kabuki syndrome is a congenital developmental disorder that is characterized by distinctive facial gestalt and skeletal abnormalities. Although rare, the disorder shares clinical features with several related craniofacial syndromes that manifest from mutations in chromatin-modifying enzymes. Collectively, these clinical studies underscore the crucial, concerted functions of chromatin factors in shaping developmental genome structure and driving cellular transcriptional states. Kabuki syndrome predominantly results from mutations in KMT2D, a histone H3 lysine 4 methylase, or KDM6A, a histone H3 lysine 27 demethylase. AIMS In this review, we summarize the research efforts to model Kabuki syndrome in vivo to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms that lead to the craniofacial and skeletal pathogenesis that defines the disorder. DISCUSSION As several studies have indicated the importance of KMT2D and KDM6A function through catalytic-independent mechanisms, we highlight noncanonical roles for these enzymes as recruitment centers for alternative chromatin and transcriptional machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl B Shpargel
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Gabrielle Quickstad
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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6
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Liu NQ, Paassen I, Custers L, Zeller P, Teunissen H, Ayyildiz D, He J, Buhl JL, Hoving EW, van Oudenaarden A, de Wit E, Drost J. SMARCB1 loss activates patient-specific distal oncogenic enhancers in malignant rhabdoid tumors. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7762. [PMID: 38040699 PMCID: PMC10692191 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43498-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Malignant rhabdoid tumor (MRT) is a highly malignant and often lethal childhood cancer. MRTs are genetically defined by bi-allelic inactivating mutations in SMARCB1, a member of the BRG1/BRM-associated factors (BAF) chromatin remodeling complex. Mutations in BAF complex members are common in human cancer, yet their contribution to tumorigenesis remains in many cases poorly understood. Here, we study derailed regulatory landscapes as a consequence of SMARCB1 loss in the context of MRT. Our multi-omics approach on patient-derived MRT organoids reveals a dramatic reshaping of the regulatory landscape upon SMARCB1 reconstitution. Chromosome conformation capture experiments subsequently reveal patient-specific looping of distal enhancer regions with the promoter of the MYC oncogene. This intertumoral heterogeneity in MYC enhancer utilization is also present in patient MRT tissues as shown by combined single-cell RNA-seq and ATAC-seq. We show that loss of SMARCB1 activates patient-specific epigenetic reprogramming underlying MRT tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Qing Liu
- Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Hematology, Erasmus Medical Center (MC) Cancer Institute, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Irene Paassen
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Lars Custers
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Peter Zeller
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Hubrecht Institute-KNAW, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Hans Teunissen
- Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Dilara Ayyildiz
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jiayou He
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Juliane Laura Buhl
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | - Alexander van Oudenaarden
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Hubrecht Institute-KNAW, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Elzo de Wit
- Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Jarno Drost
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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7
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Boogerd CJ, Perini I, Kyriakopoulou E, Han SJ, La P, van der Swaan B, Berkhout JB, Versteeg D, Monshouwer-Kloots J, van Rooij E. Cardiomyocyte proliferation is suppressed by ARID1A-mediated YAP inhibition during cardiac maturation. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4716. [PMID: 37543677 PMCID: PMC10404286 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40203-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The inability of adult human cardiomyocytes to proliferate is an obstacle to efficient cardiac regeneration after injury. Understanding the mechanisms that drive postnatal cardiomyocytes to switch to a non-regenerative state is therefore of great significance. Here we show that Arid1a, a subunit of the switching defective/sucrose non-fermenting (SWI/SNF) chromatin remodeling complex, suppresses postnatal cardiomyocyte proliferation while enhancing maturation. Genome-wide transcriptome and epigenome analyses revealed that Arid1a is required for the activation of a cardiomyocyte maturation gene program by promoting DNA access to transcription factors that drive cardiomyocyte maturation. Furthermore, we show that ARID1A directly binds and inhibits the proliferation-promoting transcriptional coactivators YAP and TAZ, indicating ARID1A sequesters YAP/TAZ from their DNA-binding partner TEAD. In ischemic heart disease, Arid1a expression is enhanced in cardiomyocytes of the border zone region. Inactivation of Arid1a after ischemic injury enhanced proliferation of border zone cardiomyocytes. Our study illuminates the pivotal role of Arid1a in cardiomyocyte maturation, and uncovers Arid1a as a crucial suppressor of cardiomyocyte proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelis J Boogerd
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands.
| | - Ilaria Perini
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Eirini Kyriakopoulou
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Su Ji Han
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Phit La
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Britt van der Swaan
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jari B Berkhout
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Danielle Versteeg
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jantine Monshouwer-Kloots
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Eva van Rooij
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands.
- Department of Cardiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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8
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Singh AK, Viviano S, Allington G, McGee S, Kiziltug E, Mekbib KY, Shohfi JP, Duy PQ, DeSpenza T, Furey CG, Reeves BC, Smith H, Ma S, Sousa AMM, Cherskov A, Allocco A, Nelson-Williams C, Haider S, Rizvi SRA, Alper SL, Sestan N, Shimelis H, Walsh LK, Lifton RP, Moreno-De-Luca A, Jin SC, Kruszka P, Deniz E, Kahle KT. A novel SMARCC1 -mutant BAFopathy implicates epigenetic dysregulation of neural progenitors in hydrocephalus. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2023:2023.03.19.23287455. [PMID: 36993720 PMCID: PMC10055611 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.19.23287455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
Importance Hydrocephalus, characterized by cerebral ventriculomegaly, is the most common disorder requiring brain surgery. A few familial forms of congenital hydrocephalus (CH) have been identified, but the cause of most sporadic cases of CH remains elusive. Recent studies have implicated SMARCC1 , a component of the B RG1- a ssociated factor (BAF) chromatin remodeling complex, as a candidate CH gene. However, SMARCC1 variants have not been systematically examined in a large patient cohort or conclusively linked with a human syndrome. Moreover, CH-associated SMARCC1 variants have not been functionally validated or mechanistically studied in vivo . Objectives The aims of this study are to (i) assess the extent to which rare, damaging de novo mutations (DNMs) in SMARCC1 are associated with cerebral ventriculomegaly; (ii) describe the clinical and radiographic phenotypes of SMARCC1 -mutated patients; and (iii) assess the pathogenicity and mechanisms of CH-associated SMARCC1 mutations in vivo . Design setting and participants A genetic association study was conducted using whole-exome sequencing from a cohort consisting of 2,697 ventriculomegalic trios, including patients with neurosurgically-treated CH, totaling 8,091 exomes collected over 5 years (2016-2021). Data were analyzed in 2023. A comparison control cohort consisted of 1,798 exomes from unaffected siblings of patients with autism spectrum disorder and their unaffected parents sourced from the Simons simplex consortium. Main outcomes and measures Gene variants were identified and filtered using stringent, validated criteria. Enrichment tests assessed gene-level variant burden. In silico biophysical modeling estimated the likelihood and extent of the variant impact on protein structure. The effect of a CH-associated SMARCC1 mutation on the human fetal brain transcriptome was assessed by analyzing RNA-sequencing data. Smarcc1 knockdowns and a patient-specific Smarcc1 variant were tested in Xenopus and studied using optical coherence tomography imaging, in situ hybridization, and immunofluorescence microscopy. Results SMARCC1 surpassed genome-wide significance thresholds in DNM enrichment tests. Six rare protein-altering DNMs, including four loss-of-function mutations and one recurrent canonical splice site mutation (c.1571+1G>A) were detected in unrelated patients. DNMs localized to the highly conserved DNA-interacting SWIRM, Myb-DNA binding, Glu-rich, and Chromo domains of SMARCC1 . Patients exhibited developmental delay (DD), aqueductal stenosis, and other structural brain and heart defects. G0 and G1 Smarcc1 Xenopus mutants exhibited aqueductal stenosis and cardiac defects and were rescued by human wild-type SMARCC1 but not a patient-specific SMARCC1 mutant. Hydrocephalic SMARCC1 -mutant human fetal brain and Smarcc1 -mutant Xenopus brain exhibited a similarly altered expression of key genes linked to midgestational neurogenesis, including the transcription factors NEUROD2 and MAB21L2 . Conclusions SMARCC1 is a bona fide CH risk gene. DNMs in SMARCC1 cause a novel human BAFopathy we term " S MARCC1- a ssociated D evelopmental D ysgenesis S yndrome (SaDDS)", characterized by cerebral ventriculomegaly, aqueductal stenosis, DD, and a variety of structural brain or cardiac defects. These data underscore the importance of SMARCC1 and the BAF chromatin remodeling complex for human brain morphogenesis and provide evidence for a "neural stem cell" paradigm of human CH pathogenesis. These results highlight the utility of trio-based WES for identifying risk genes for congenital structural brain disorders and suggest WES may be a valuable adjunct in the clinical management of CH patients. KEY POINTS Question: What is the role of SMARCC1 , a core component of the B RG1- a ssociated factor (BAF) chromatin remodeling complex, in brain morphogenesis and congenital hydrocephalus (CH)? Findings: SMARCC1 harbored an exome-wide significant burden of rare, protein-damaging de novo mutations (DNMs) (p = 5.83 × 10 -9 ) in the largest ascertained cohort to date of patients with cerebral ventriculomegaly, including treated CH (2,697 parent-proband trios). SMARCC1 contained four loss-of-function DNMs and two identical canonical splice site DNMs in a total of six unrelated patients. Patients exhibited developmental delay, aqueductal stenosis, and other structural brain and cardiac defects. Xenopus Smarcc1 mutants recapitulated core human phenotypes and were rescued by the expression of human wild-type but not patient-mutant SMARCC1 . Hydrocephalic SMARCC1 -mutant human brain and Smarcc1 -mutant Xenopus brain exhibited similar alterationsin the expression of key transcription factors that regulate neural progenitor cell proliferation. Meaning: SMARCC1 is essential for human brain morphogenesis and is a bona fide CH risk gene. SMARCC1 mutations cause a novel human BAFopathy we term " S MARCC1- a ssociated D evelopmental D ysgenesis S yndrome (SaDDS)". These data implicate epigenetic dysregulation of fetal neural progenitors in the pathogenesis of hydrocephalus, with diagnostic and prognostic implications for patients and caregivers.
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9
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Tang CY, Zhang X, Xu X, Sun S, Peng C, Song MH, Yan C, Sun H, Liu M, Xie L, Luo SJ, Li JT. Genetic mapping and molecular mechanism behind color variation in the Asian vine snake. Genome Biol 2023; 24:46. [PMID: 36895044 PMCID: PMC9999515 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-023-02887-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reptiles exhibit a wide variety of skin colors, which serve essential roles in survival and reproduction. However, the molecular basis of these conspicuous colors remains unresolved. RESULTS We investigate color morph-enriched Asian vine snakes (Ahaetulla prasina), to explore the mechanism underpinning color variations. Transmission electron microscopy imaging and metabolomics analysis indicates that chromatophore morphology (mainly iridophores) is the main basis for differences in skin color. Additionally, we assemble a 1.77-Gb high-quality chromosome-anchored genome of the snake. Genome-wide association study and RNA sequencing reveal a conservative amino acid substitution (p.P20S) in SMARCE1, which may be involved in the regulation of chromatophore development initiated from neural crest cells. SMARCE1 knockdown in zebrafish and immunofluorescence verify the interactions among SMARCE1, iridophores, and tfec, which may determine color variations in the Asian vine snake. CONCLUSIONS This study reveals the genetic associations of color variation in Asian vine snakes, providing insights and important resources for a deeper understanding of the molecular and genetic mechanisms related to reptilian coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Yang Tang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration and Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xiaohu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Sichuan University-The Chinese University of Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for Reproductive Medicine, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xiao Xu
- The State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
- Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Shijie Sun
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Sichuan University-The Chinese University of Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for Reproductive Medicine, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Changjun Peng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration and Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, 610041, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Meng-Huan Song
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration and Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, 610041, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Chaochao Yan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration and Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Huaqin Sun
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Sichuan University-The Chinese University of Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for Reproductive Medicine, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Mingfeng Liu
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Sichuan University-The Chinese University of Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for Reproductive Medicine, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Liang Xie
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Shu-Jin Luo
- The State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
- Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Jia-Tang Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration and Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, 610041, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
- Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, China.
- Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yezin Nay Pyi Taw, 05282, Myanmar.
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10
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Loss of GLTSCR1 causes congenital heart defects by regulating NPPA transcription. Angiogenesis 2023; 26:217-232. [PMID: 36745292 PMCID: PMC10119265 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-023-09869-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Precise and specific spatiotemporal domains of gene expression regulation are critical for embryonic development. Recent studies have identified GLTSCR1 as a gene transcriptional elongation regulator in cancer research. However, the function of GLTSCR1, especially in embryonic development, remains poorly understood. Here, we found that GLTSCR1 was essential for cardiac development because Gltscr1 knockout (Gltscr1-/-) led to embryonic lethality in mice with severe congenital heart defects (CHDs). Ventricular septal defect and double outflow right ventricular were also observed in neural crest cells with conditional deletion of Gltscr1, which were associated with neonatal lethality in mice. Mechanistically, GLTSCR1 deletion promoted NPPA expression by coordinating the CHD risk G allele of rs56153133 in the NPPA enhancer and releasing the transcription factor ZNF740-binding site on the NPPA promoter. These findings demonstrated that GLTSCR1 acts as a candidate CHD-related gene.
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11
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Nguyen VT, Tessema M, Weissman BE. The SWI/SNF Complex: A Frequently Mutated Chromatin Remodeling Complex in Cancer. Cancer Treat Res 2023; 190:211-244. [PMID: 38113003 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-45654-1_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
The switch/sucrose non-fermenting (SWI/SNF) chromatin remodeling complex is a global regulator of gene expression known to maintain nucleosome-depleted regions at active enhancers and promoters. The mammalian SWI/SNF protein subunits are encoded by 29 genes and 11-15 subunits including an ATPase domain of either SMARCA4 (BRG1) or SMARCA2 (BRM) are assembled into a complex. Based on the distinct subunits, SWI/SNF are grouped into 3 major types (subfamilies): the canonical BRG1/BRM-associated factor (BAF/cBAF), polybromo-associated BAF (PBAF), and non-canonical BAF (GBAF/ncBAF). Pan-cancer genome sequencing studies have shown that nearly 25% of all cancers bear mutations in subunits of the SWI/SNF complex, many of which are loss of function (LOF) mutations, suggesting a tumor suppressor role. Inactivation of SWI/SNF complex subunits causes widespread epigenetic dysfunction, including increased dependence on antagonistic components such as polycomb repressor complexes (PRC1/2) and altered enhancer regulation, likely promoting an oncogenic state leading to cancer. Despite the prevalence of mutations, most SWI/SNF-mutant cancers lack targeted therapeutic strategies. Defining the dependencies created by LOF mutations in SWI/SNF subunits will identify better targets for these cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinh The Nguyen
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Curriculum in Toxicology and Environmental Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Mathewos Tessema
- Lung Cancer Program, Lovelace Biomedical Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Bernard Ellis Weissman
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- Curriculum in Toxicology and Environmental Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
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12
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Ash2l, an obligatory component of H3K4 methylation complexes, regulates neural crest development. Dev Biol 2022; 492:14-24. [PMID: 36162552 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2022.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The vertebrate nervous system develops from embryonic neural plate and neural crest. Although genetic mechanisms governing vertebrate neural development have been investigated in depth, epigenetic regulation of this process remains less understood. Redundancy of epigenetic factors and early lethality of animals deficient in critical epigenetic components pose major challenges in characterization of epigenetic factors in vertebrate neural development. In this study, we use the amphibian model Xenopus laevis to investigate the roles of non-redundant, obligatory components of all histone H3K4 activating methylation complexes (COMPASS, also known as SET1/MLL complexes) in early neural development. The two genes that we focus on, Ash2l and Dpy30, regulate mesendodermal differentiation in mouse embryonic stem cells and cause early embryonic lethality when removed from mouse embryos. Using targeted knockdown of the genes in dorsal ectoderm of Xenopus that gives rise to future nervous system, we show here that ash2l and dpy30 are required for neural and neural crest marker expression in Xenopus late neurula embryos but are dispensable for early neural and neural plate border gene expression. Co-immunoprecipitation assays reveal that Dpy30 and Ash2L associate with the neural plate border transcription factors, such as Msx1 and Tfap2a. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay further demonstrates that Ash2L and the H3K4me3 active histone mark accumulate at the promoter regions of the neural crest gene sox10 in a Tfap2a-dependent manner. Collectively, our data suggest that Ash2l and Dpy30 interact with specific transcription factors to recruit COMPASS complexes to the regulatory regions of neural crest specification genes to control their expression and influence development of the nervous system during vertebrate embryogenesis.
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13
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Guo T, Han X, He J, Feng J, Jing J, Janečková E, Lei J, Ho TV, Xu J, Chai Y. KDM6B interacts with TFDP1 to activate P53 signalling in regulating mouse palatogenesis. eLife 2022; 11:74595. [PMID: 35212626 PMCID: PMC9007587 DOI: 10.7554/elife.74595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epigenetic regulation plays extensive roles in diseases and development. Disruption of epigenetic regulation not only increases the risk of cancer, but can also cause various developmental defects. However, the question of how epigenetic changes lead to tissue-specific responses during neural crest fate determination and differentiation remains understudied. Using palatogenesis as a model, we reveal the functional significance of Kdm6b, an H3K27me3 demethylase, in regulating mouse embryonic development. Our study shows that Kdm6b plays an essential role in cranial neural crest development, and loss of Kdm6b disturbs P53 pathway-mediated activity, leading to complete cleft palate along with cell proliferation and differentiation defects in mice. Furthermore, activity of H3K27me3 on the promoter of Trp53 is antagonistically controlled by Kdm6b, and Ezh2 in cranial neural crest cells. More importantly, without Kdm6b, the transcription factor TFDP1, which normally binds to the promoter of Trp53, cannot activate Trp53 expression in palatal mesenchymal cells. Furthermore, the function of Kdm6b in activating Trp53 in these cells cannot be compensated for by the closely related histone demethylase Kdm6a. Collectively, our results highlight the important role of the epigenetic regulator KDM6B and how it specifically interacts with TFDP1 to achieve its functional specificity in regulating Trp53 expression, and further provide mechanistic insights into the epigenetic regulatory network during organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingwei Guo
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Xia Han
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Jinzhi He
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Jifan Feng
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Junjun Jing
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Eva Janečková
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Jie Lei
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Thach-Vu Ho
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Jian Xu
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Yang Chai
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
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14
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Martin Merlez F, González Zalazar M, Castillo Taucher S. Frameshift Variant in ARID2 in a Chilean Individual with Coffin–Siris Syndrome Phenotype. J Pediatr Genet 2021. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1740531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
AbstractCoffin–Siris syndrome (CSS) is one of the several causes of intellectual disability (ID) and, since its first description, has posed diagnostic challenges given its variability and phenotypic overlap with other alterations of chromatin-remodeling-associated syndromes. It is genetically heterogeneous, and causative mutations are detected in less than 70% of cases. The different subtypes of the syndrome described to date are caused by mutations in genes that encode subunits of the SWI/SNF chromatin-remodeling complex, which plays an essential role in the regulation of gene expression during embryogenesis. Whole exome sequencing (WES) has allowed the identification of pathogenic mutations in these genes, including ARID2. ARID2 is one of the primary components of the SWI/SNF complex and has been associated with ID and phenotypes similar to CSS for the first time in 2015. Fifteen published case reports have identified loss-of-function mutations, suggesting that the underlying pathogenic disease mechanism is haploinsufficiency of ARID2.We herein presented the case of an 8-year-old Chilean girl with clinical suspicion of CSS, in whom a novel frameshift variant in ARID2 was identified by WES. She was the first reported case in Latin America to our knowledge and her phenotype displays the main clinical features suggestive of CSS described in other patients with ARID2 variants. However, she did not present behavioral abnormalities, a characteristic frequently reported in the majority of patients with ARID2 variants, and also had some features, such as sparse scalp hair, which is frequently reported as a manifestation of CSS, but is uncommon in this new group of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Silvia Castillo Taucher
- Division of Genetics, Clinical Hospital, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Clinical Laboratory Division Cytogenetics, Santiago, Chile
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15
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Liu X, Dai SK, Liu PP, Liu CM. Arid1a regulates neural stem/progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation during cortical development. Cell Prolif 2021; 54:e13124. [PMID: 34562292 PMCID: PMC8560606 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.13124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Neurodevelopmental diseases are common disorders caused by the disruption of essential neurodevelopmental processes. Recent human exome sequencing and genome‐wide association studies have shown that mutations in the subunits of the SWI/SNF (BAF) complex are risk factors for neurodevelopmental diseases. Clinical studies have found that ARID1A (BAF250a) is the most frequently mutated SWI/SNF gene and its mutations lead to mental retardation and microcephaly. However, the function of ARID1A in brain development and its underlying mechanisms still remain elusive. Methods The present study used Cre/loxP system to generate an Arid1a conditional knockout mouse line. Cell proliferation, cell apoptosis and cell differentiation of NSPCs were studied by immunofluorescence staining. In addition, RNA‐seq and RT‐PCR were performed to dissect the molecular mechanisms of Arid1a underlying cortical neurogenesis. Finally, rescue experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of Neurod1 or Fezf2 overexpression on the differentiation of NSPCs in vitro. Results Conditional knockout of Arid1a reduces cortical thickness in the developing cortex. Arid1a loss of function inhibits the proliferation of radial glial cells, and increases cell death during late cortical development, and leads to dysregulated expression of genes associated with proliferation and differentiation. Overexpression of Neurod1 or Fezf2 in Arid1a cKO NSPCs rescues their neural differentiation defect in vitro. Conclusions This study demonstrates for the first time that Arid1a plays an important role in regulating the proliferation and differentiation of NSPCs during cortical development, and proposes several gene candidates that are worth to understand the pathological mechanisms and to develop novel interventions of neurodevelopment disorders caused by Arid1a mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Shang-Kun Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Pei-Pei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Chang-Mei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, China
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16
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The Cardiac Neural Crest Cells in Heart Development and Congenital Heart Defects. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2021; 8:jcdd8080089. [PMID: 34436231 PMCID: PMC8397082 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd8080089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural crest (NC) is a multipotent and temporarily migratory cell population stemming from the dorsal neural tube during vertebrate embryogenesis. Cardiac neural crest cells (NCCs), a specified subpopulation of the NC, are vital for normal cardiovascular development, as they significantly contribute to the pharyngeal arch arteries, the developing cardiac outflow tract (OFT), cardiac valves, and interventricular septum. Various signaling pathways are shown to orchestrate the proper migration, compaction, and differentiation of cardiac NCCs during cardiovascular development. Any loss or dysregulation of signaling pathways in cardiac NCCs can lead to abnormal cardiovascular development during embryogenesis, resulting in abnormalities categorized as congenital heart defects (CHDs). This review focuses on the contributions of cardiac NCCs to cardiovascular formation, discusses cardiac defects caused by a disruption of various regulatory factors, and summarizes the role of multiple signaling pathways during embryonic development. A better understanding of the cardiac NC and its vast regulatory network will provide a deeper insight into the mechanisms of the associated abnormalities, leading to potential therapeutic advancements.
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17
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Yan S, Lu J, Jiao K. Epigenetic Regulation of Cardiac Neural Crest Cells. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:678954. [PMID: 33968946 PMCID: PMC8097001 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.678954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The cardiac neural crest cells (cNCCs) is a transient, migratory cell population that contribute to the formation of major arteries and the septa and valves of the heart. Abnormal development of cNCCs leads to a spectrum of congenital heart defects that mainly affect the outflow region of the hearts. Signaling molecules and transcription factors are the best studied regulatory events controlling cNCC development. In recent years, however, accumulated evidence supports that epigenetic regulation also plays an important role in cNCC development. Here, we summarize the functions of epigenetic regulators during cNCC development as well as cNCC related cardiovascular defects. These factors include ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling factors, histone modifiers and DNA methylation modulators. In many cases, mutations in the genes encoding these factors are known to cause inborn heart diseases. A better understanding of epigenetic regulators, their activities and their roles during heart development will ultimately contribute to the development of new clinical applications for patients with congenital heart disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kai Jiao
- Department of Genetics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
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18
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Du J, Jing J, Chen S, Yuan Y, Feng J, Ho TV, Sehgal P, Xu J, Jiang X, Chai Y. Arid1a regulates cell cycle exit of transit-amplifying cells by inhibiting the Aurka-Cdk1 axis in mouse incisor. Development 2021; 148:dev.198838. [PMID: 33766930 DOI: 10.1242/dev.198838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Stem cells self-renew or give rise to transit-amplifying cells (TACs) that differentiate into specific functional cell types. The fate determination of stem cells to TACs and their transition to fully differentiated progeny is precisely regulated to maintain tissue homeostasis. Arid1a, a core component of the switch/sucrose nonfermentable complex, performs epigenetic regulation of stage- and tissue-specific genes that is indispensable for stem cell homeostasis and differentiation. However, the functional mechanism of Arid1a in the fate commitment of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their progeny is not clear. Using the continuously growing adult mouse incisor model, we show that Arid1a maintains tissue homeostasis through limiting proliferation, promoting cell cycle exit and differentiation of TACs by inhibiting the Aurka-Cdk1 axis. Loss of Arid1a overactivates the Aurka-Cdk1 axis, leading to expansion of the mitotic TAC population but compromising their differentiation ability. Furthermore, the defective homeostasis after loss of Arid1a ultimately leads to reduction of the MSC population. These findings reveal the functional significance of Arid1a in regulating the fate of TACs and their interaction with MSCs to maintain tissue homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahui Du
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA.,Department of Prosthodontics, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200011, China
| | - Junjun Jing
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Shuo Chen
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Yuan Yuan
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Jifan Feng
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Thach-Vu Ho
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Prerna Sehgal
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Jian Xu
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Xinquan Jiang
- Department of Prosthodontics, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200011, China
| | - Yang Chai
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
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19
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Du J, Jing J, Yuan Y, Feng J, Han X, Chen S, Li X, Peng W, Xu J, Ho TV, Jiang X, Chai Y. Arid1a-Plagl1-Hh signaling is indispensable for differentiation-associated cell cycle arrest of tooth root progenitors. Cell Rep 2021; 35:108964. [PMID: 33826897 PMCID: PMC8132592 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Chromatin remodelers often show broad expression patterns in multiple cell types yet can elicit cell-specific effects in development and diseases. Arid1a binds DNA and regulates gene expression during tissue development and homeostasis. However, it is unclear how Arid1a achieves its functional specificity in regulating progenitor cells. Using the tooth root as a model, we show that loss of Arid1a impairs the differentiation-associated cell cycle arrest of tooth root progenitors through Hedgehog (Hh) signaling regulation, leading to shortened roots. Our data suggest that Plagl1, as a co-factor, endows Arid1a with its cell-type/spatial functional specificity. Furthermore, we show that loss of Arid1a leads to increased expression of Arid1b, which is also indispensable for odontoblast differentiation but is not involved in regulation of Hh signaling. This study expands our knowledge of the intricate interactions among chromatin remodelers, transcription factors, and signaling molecules during progenitor cell fate determination and lineage commitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahui Du
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; Department of Prosthodontics, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Junjun Jing
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Yuan Yuan
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Jifan Feng
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Xia Han
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Shuo Chen
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Xiang Li
- Department of Physics, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Weiqun Peng
- Department of Physics, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Jian Xu
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Thach-Vu Ho
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Xinquan Jiang
- Department of Prosthodontics, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Yang Chai
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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20
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Bi-Lin KW, Seshachalam PV, Tuoc T, Stoykova A, Ghosh S, Singh MK. Critical role of the BAF chromatin remodeling complex during murine neural crest development. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009446. [PMID: 33750945 PMCID: PMC8016319 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The BAF complex plays an important role in the development of a wide range of tissues by modulating gene expression programs at the chromatin level. However, its role in neural crest development has remained unclear. To determine the role of the BAF complex, we deleted BAF155/BAF170, the core subunits required for the assembly, stability, and functions of the BAF complex in neural crest cells (NCCs). Neural crest-specific deletion of BAF155/BAF170 leads to embryonic lethality due to a wide range of developmental defects including craniofacial, pharyngeal arch artery, and OFT defects. RNAseq and transcription factor enrichment analysis revealed that the BAF complex modulates the expression of multiple signaling pathway genes including Hippo and Notch, essential for the migration, proliferation, and differentiation of the NCCs. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the BAF complex is essential for the Brg1-Yap-Tead-dependent transcription of target genes in NCCs. Together, our results demonstrate an important role of the BAF complex in modulating the gene regulatory network essential for neural crest development. Neural crest cells (NCCs) are a multipotent and migratory cell population that is induced at the neural plate border during neurulation and contributes to the formation of a wide range of tissues. Defects in the development, differentiation, or migration of NCCs lead to various birth defects including craniofacial and heart anomalies. Here, by genetically deleting BAF155/BAF170, the core subunits required for the assembly, stability, and functions of the BAF chromatin remodeling complex, we demonstrate that the BAF complex is essential for the proliferation, survival, and differentiation of the NCCs. Neural crest-specific deletion of BAF155/BAF170 leads to embryonic lethality due to a wide range of developmental defects including craniofacial and cardiovascular defects. By performing RNAseq and transcription factor enrichment analysis we show that the BAF complex modulates the expression of multiple signaling pathway genes including Hippo and Notch, essential for the development of the NCCs. Furthermore, the BAF complex component physically interacts with the Hippo signaling components in NCCs to regulate gene expression. We demonstrated that the BAF complex is essential for the Brg1-Yap-Tead-dependent transcription of target genes in NCCs. Together, our results demonstrate a critical role of the BAF complex in modulating the gene regulatory network essential for the proper development of neural crest and neural crest-derived tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Wung Bi-Lin
- Program in Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Tran Tuoc
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr University of Bochum, Bochum, Germany
- Institute of Neuroanatomy, University Medical Center, Georg-August-University Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
| | | | - Sujoy Ghosh
- Program in Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School Singapore, Singapore
| | - Manvendra K. Singh
- Program in Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School Singapore, Singapore
- National Heart Research Institute Singapore, National Heart Center Singapore, Singapore
- * E-mail:
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21
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Hiraide T, Yamoto K, Masunaga Y, Asahina M, Endoh Y, Ohkubo Y, Matsubayashi T, Tsurui S, Yamada H, Yanagi K, Nakashima M, Hirano K, Sugimura H, Fukuda T, Ogata T, Saitsu H. Genetic and phenotypic analysis of 101 patients with developmental delay or intellectual disability using whole-exome sequencing. Clin Genet 2021; 100:40-50. [PMID: 33644862 DOI: 10.1111/cge.13951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Whole-exome sequencing (WES) enables identification of pathogenic variants, including copy number variants (CNVs). In this study, we performed WES in 101 Japanese patients with unexplained developmental delay (DD) or intellectual disability (ID) (63 males and 38 females), 98 of them with trio-WES. Pathogenic variants were identified in 54 cases (53.5%), including four cases with pathogenic CNVs. In one case, a pathogenic variant was identified by reanalysis of exome data; and in two cases, two molecular diagnoses were identified. Among 58 pathogenic variants, 49 variants occurred de novo in 48 patients, including two somatic variants. The accompanying autism spectrum disorder and external ear anomalies were associated with detection of pathogenic variants with odds ratios of 11.88 (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.52-56.00) and 3.46 (95% CI 1.23-9.73), respectively. These findings revealed the importance of reanalysis of WES data and detection of CNVs and somatic variants in increasing the diagnostic yield for unexplained DD/ID. In addition, genetic testing is recommended when patients suffer from the autism spectrum disorder or external ear anomalies, which potentially suggests the involvement of genetic factors associated with gene expression regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Hiraide
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan.,Department of Biochemistry, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Kaori Yamoto
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Yohei Masunaga
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Miki Asahina
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu City Welfare and Medical Center for Development, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Yusaku Endoh
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu City Welfare and Medical Center for Development, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Yumiko Ohkubo
- Department of Pediatrics, Shizuoka Saiseikai Hospital, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Tomoko Matsubayashi
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan.,Department of Pediatric Neurology, Shizuoka Children's Hospital, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Satoshi Tsurui
- Department of Pediatrics, Seirei-Numazu Hospital, Numazu, Japan
| | - Hidetaka Yamada
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Kumiko Yanagi
- Department of Genome Medicine, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mitsuko Nakashima
- Department of Biochemistry, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Kouichi Hirano
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu City Welfare and Medical Center for Development, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Haruhiko Sugimura
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Tokiko Fukuda
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Ogata
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Hirotomo Saitsu
- Department of Biochemistry, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
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22
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Pagliaroli L, Trizzino M. The Evolutionary Conserved SWI/SNF Subunits ARID1A and ARID1B Are Key Modulators of Pluripotency and Cell-Fate Determination. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:643361. [PMID: 33748136 PMCID: PMC7969888 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.643361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Organismal development is a process that requires a fine-tuned control of cell fate and identity, through timely regulation of lineage-specific genes. These processes are mediated by the concerted action of transcription factors and protein complexes that orchestrate the interaction between cis-regulatory elements (enhancers, promoters) and RNA Polymerase II to elicit transcription. A proper understanding of these dynamics is essential to elucidate the mechanisms underlying developmental diseases. Many developmental disorders, such as Coffin-Siris Syndrome, characterized by growth impairment and intellectual disability are associated with mutations in subunits of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeler complex, which is an essential regulator of transcription. ARID1B and its paralog ARID1A encode for the two largest, mutually exclusive, subunits of the complex. Mutations in ARID1A and, especially, ARID1B are recurrently associated with a very wide array of developmental disorders, suggesting that these two SWI/SNF subunits play an important role in cell fate decision. In this mini-review we therefore discuss the available scientific literature linking ARID1A and ARID1B to cell fate determination, pluripotency maintenance, and organismal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Pagliaroli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Marco Trizzino
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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23
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Mossink B, Negwer M, Schubert D, Nadif Kasri N. The emerging role of chromatin remodelers in neurodevelopmental disorders: a developmental perspective. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:2517-2563. [PMID: 33263776 PMCID: PMC8004494 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03714-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), including intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD), are a large group of disorders in which early insults during brain development result in a wide and heterogeneous spectrum of clinical diagnoses. Mutations in genes coding for chromatin remodelers are overrepresented in NDD cohorts, pointing towards epigenetics as a convergent pathogenic pathway between these disorders. In this review we detail the role of NDD-associated chromatin remodelers during the developmental continuum of progenitor expansion, differentiation, cell-type specification, migration and maturation. We discuss how defects in chromatin remodelling during these early developmental time points compound over time and result in impaired brain circuit establishment. In particular, we focus on their role in the three largest cell populations: glutamatergic neurons, GABAergic neurons, and glia cells. An in-depth understanding of the spatiotemporal role of chromatin remodelers during neurodevelopment can contribute to the identification of molecular targets for treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britt Mossink
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboudumc, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Geert Grooteplein 10, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboudumc, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Moritz Negwer
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboudumc, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Geert Grooteplein 10, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboudumc, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk Schubert
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboudumc, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Nael Nadif Kasri
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboudumc, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Geert Grooteplein 10, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboudumc, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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24
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Johann PD. Invited Review: Dysregulation of chromatin remodellers in paediatric brain tumours - SMARCB1 and beyond. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2021; 46:57-72. [PMID: 32307752 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in chromatin remodelling genes occur in approximately 25% of all human tumours (Kadoch et al. Nat Genet 45: 592-601, 2013). The spectrum of alterations is broad and comprises single nucleotide variants, insertion/deletions and more complex structural variations. The single most often affected remodelling complex is the SWI/SNF complex (SWItch/sucrose non-fermentable). In the field of paediatric neuro-oncology, the spectrum of affected genes implicated in epigenetic remodelling is narrower with SMARCB1 and SMARCA4 being the most frequent. The low mutation frequencies in many of the SWI/SNF mutant entities underline the fact that perturbed chromatin remodelling is the most salient factor in tumourigenesis and could thus be a potential therapeutic opportunity. Here, I review the genetic basis of aberrant chromatin remodelling in paediatric brain tumours and discuss their impact on the epigenome in the respective entities, mainly medulloblastomas and rhabdoid tumours.
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Affiliation(s)
- P D Johann
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Division of Paediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and German Cancer Research Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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25
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Shpargel KB, Mangini CL, Xie G, Ge K, Magnuson T. The KMT2D Kabuki syndrome histone methylase controls neural crest cell differentiation and facial morphology. Development 2020; 147:dev.187997. [PMID: 32541010 DOI: 10.1242/dev.187997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Kabuki syndrome (KS) is a congenital craniofacial disorder resulting from mutations in the KMT2D histone methylase (KS1) or the UTX histone demethylase (KS2). With small cohorts of KS2 patients, it is not clear whether differences exist in clinical manifestations relative to KS1. We mutated KMT2D in neural crest cells (NCCs) to study cellular and molecular functions in craniofacial development with respect to UTX. Similar to UTX, KMT2D NCC knockout mice demonstrate hypoplasia with reductions in frontonasal bone lengths. We have traced the onset of KMT2D and UTX mutant NCC frontal dysfunction to a stage of altered osteochondral progenitor differentiation. KMT2D NCC loss-of-function does exhibit unique phenotypes distinct from UTX mutation, including fully penetrant cleft palate, mandible hypoplasia and deficits in cranial base ossification. KMT2D mutant NCCs lead to defective secondary palatal shelf elevation with reduced expression of extracellular matrix components. KMT2D mutant chondrocytes in the cranial base fail to properly differentiate, leading to defective endochondral ossification. We conclude that KMT2D is required for appropriate cranial NCC differentiation and KMT2D-specific phenotypes may underlie differences between Kabuki syndrome subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl B Shpargel
- Department of Genetics and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264, USA
| | - Cassidy L Mangini
- Department of Genetics and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264, USA
| | - Guojia Xie
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kai Ge
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Terry Magnuson
- Department of Genetics and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264, USA
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26
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Liu J, Liu S, Gao H, Han L, Chu X, Sheng Y, Shou W, Wang Y, Liu Y, Wan J, Yang L. Genome-wide studies reveal the essential and opposite roles of ARID1A in controlling human cardiogenesis and neurogenesis from pluripotent stem cells. Genome Biol 2020; 21:169. [PMID: 32646524 PMCID: PMC7350744 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-020-02082-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early human heart and brain development simultaneously occur during embryogenesis. Notably, in human newborns, congenital heart defects strongly associate with neurodevelopmental abnormalities, suggesting a common gene or complex underlying both cardiogenesis and neurogenesis. However, due to lack of in vivo studies, the molecular mechanisms that govern both early human heart and brain development remain elusive. RESULTS Here, we report ARID1A, a DNA-binding subunit of the SWI/SNF epigenetic complex, controls both neurogenesis and cardiogenesis from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) through distinct mechanisms. Knockout-of-ARID1A (ARID1A-/-) leads to spontaneous differentiation of neural cells together with globally enhanced expression of neurogenic genes in undifferentiated hESCs. Additionally, when compared with WT hESCs, cardiac differentiation from ARID1A -/- hESCs is prominently suppressed, whereas neural differentiation is significantly promoted. Whole genome-wide scRNA-seq, ATAC-seq, and ChIP-seq analyses reveal that ARID1A is required to open chromatin accessibility on promoters of essential cardiogenic genes, and temporally associated with key cardiogenic transcriptional factors T and MEF2C during early cardiac development. However, during early neural development, transcription of most essential neurogenic genes is dependent on ARID1A, which can interact with a known neural restrictive silencer factor REST/NRSF. CONCLUSIONS We uncover the opposite roles by ARID1A to govern both early cardiac and neural development from pluripotent stem cells. Global chromatin accessibility on cardiogenic genes is dependent on ARID1A, whereas transcriptional activity of neurogenic genes is under control by ARID1A, possibly through ARID1A-REST/NRSF interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juli Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W Walnut Street, R4 272, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Sheng Liu
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Hongyu Gao
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Lei Han
- Department of Pediatrics, Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W Walnut Street, R4 272, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Xiaona Chu
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Yi Sheng
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, Magee-Women's Research Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Weinian Shou
- Department of Pediatrics, Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W Walnut Street, R4 272, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Yue Wang
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Yunlong Liu
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
- Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
- Department of BioHealth Informatics, Indiana University School of Informatics and Computing, Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Jun Wan
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA.
- Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA.
- Department of BioHealth Informatics, Indiana University School of Informatics and Computing, Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA.
| | - Lei Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, 1044 W Walnut Street, R4 272, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA.
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27
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Aberration of ARID1A Is Associated With the Tumorigenesis and Prognosis of Sporadic Nonfunctional Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors. Pancreas 2020; 49:514-523. [PMID: 32282764 DOI: 10.1097/mpa.0000000000001535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The genetic aberrations that underlie chromatin remodeling in sporadic nonfunctional pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (NF-pNETs) remain largely unknown. Here, we investigated the dysregulation of the switch/sucrose nonfermentable (SWI/SNF) component ARID1A and its correlation with clinicopathological features and prognosis. METHODS We sequenced the exomes of sporadic NF-pNETs. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry were used to determine messenger RNA level and protein expression. RESULTS The sporadic NF-pNETs harbored 264 somatic mutations in 228 different genes, most commonly affecting the SWI/SNF components ARID1B (57.1%) and ARID1A (42.9%). The expression of ARID1A was remarkably downregulated in NF-pNETs and corresponding liver metastases compared with that in normal pancreatic islet tissue. Reduced expression of ARID1A was associated with malignant clinicopathological features (P < 0.05). The loss of ARID1A was related to a high Ki-67 index (P < 0.05). Patients with ARID1A-negative expression had a significantly worse overall survival rate than those with ARID1A-positive expression (P < 0.05). The ARID1A status was an independent predictor of overall survival, and a nomogram integrating ARID1A with clinicopathological features was proposed. CONCLUSIONS The loss of SWI/SNF components ARID1A may be associated with malignant behaviors and an unfavorable prognosis. Aberrations of ARID1A may contribute to tumorigenesis and metastasis in sporadic NF-pNETs.
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28
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Calcineurin Broadly Regulates the Initiation of Skeletal Muscle-Specific Gene Expression by Binding Target Promoters and Facilitating the Interaction of the SWI/SNF Chromatin Remodeling Enzyme. Mol Cell Biol 2019; 39:MCB.00063-19. [PMID: 31308130 PMCID: PMC6751634 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00063-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcineurin (Cn) is a calcium-activated serine/threonine protein phosphatase that is broadly implicated in diverse cellular processes, including the regulation of gene expression. During skeletal muscle differentiation, Cn activates the nuclear factor of activated T-cell (NFAT) transcription factor but also promotes differentiation by counteracting the negative influences of protein kinase C beta (PKCβ) via dephosphorylation and activation of Brg1, an enzymatic subunit of the mammalian SWI/SNF ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling enzyme. Here we identified four major temporal patterns of Cn-dependent gene expression in differentiating myoblasts and determined that Cn is broadly required for the activation of the myogenic gene expression program. Mechanistically, Cn promotes gene expression through direct binding to myogenic promoter sequences and facilitating the binding of Brg1, other SWI/SNF subunit proteins, and MyoD, a critical lineage determinant for skeletal muscle differentiation. We conclude that the Cn phosphatase directly impacts the expression of myogenic genes by promoting ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling and formation of transcription-competent promoters.
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29
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Orlando KA, Nguyen V, Raab JR, Walhart T, Weissman BE. Remodeling the cancer epigenome: mutations in the SWI/SNF complex offer new therapeutic opportunities. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2019; 19:375-391. [PMID: 30986130 DOI: 10.1080/14737140.2019.1605905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cancer genome sequencing studies have discovered mutations in members of the SWItch/Sucrose Non-Fermentable (SWI/SNF) chromatin-remodeling complex in nearly 25% of human cancers. The SWI/SNF complex, first discovered in S. cerevisiae, shows strong conservation from yeast to Drosophila to mammals, contains approximately 10-12 subunits and regulates nucleosome positioning through the energy generated by its ATPase subunits. The unexpected finding of frequent mutations in the complex has fueled studies to identify the mechanisms that drive tumor development and the accompanying therapeutic vulnerabilities. Areas covered: In the review, we focus upon the potential roles different SWI/SNF subunit mutations play in human oncogenesis, their common and unique mechanisms of transformation and the potential for translating these mechanisms into targeted therapies for SWI/SNF-mutant tumors. Expert opinion: We currently have limited insights into how mutations in different SWI/SNF subunits drive the development of human tumors. Because the SWI/SNF complex participates in a broad range of normal cellular functions, defining specific oncogenic pathways has proved difficult. In addition, therapeutic options for SWI/SNF-mutant cancers have mainly evolved from high-throughput screens of cell lines with mutations in different subunits. Future studies should follow a more coherent plan to pinpoint common vulnerabilities among these tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystal A Orlando
- a Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Vinh Nguyen
- b Curriculum in Toxicology and Environmental Medicine , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Jesse R Raab
- c Department of Genetics , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Tara Walhart
- d Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Bernard E Weissman
- a Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA.,b Curriculum in Toxicology and Environmental Medicine , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA.,d Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
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30
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Johnsen JI, Dyberg C, Wickström M. Neuroblastoma-A Neural Crest Derived Embryonal Malignancy. Front Mol Neurosci 2019; 12:9. [PMID: 30760980 PMCID: PMC6361784 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2019.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroblastoma is a neural crest derived malignancy of the peripheral nervous system and is the most common and deadliest tumor of infancy. It is characterized by clinical heterogeneity with a disease spectrum ranging from spontaneous regression without any medical intervention to treatment resistant tumors with metastatic spread and poor patient survival. The events that lead to the development of neuroblastoma from the neural crest have not been fully elucidated. Here we discuss factors and processes within the neural crest that when dysregulated have the potential to be initiators or drivers of neuroblastoma development. A more precise biological understanding of neuroblastoma causes and cell of origin is highly warranted. This will give valuable information for the development of medicines that specifically target molecules within neuroblastoma cells and also give hint about the mechanisms behind treatment resistance that is frequently seen in neuroblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Inge Johnsen
- Childhood Cancer Research Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet (KI), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Cecilia Dyberg
- Childhood Cancer Research Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet (KI), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Malin Wickström
- Childhood Cancer Research Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet (KI), Stockholm, Sweden
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31
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β-actin regulates a heterochromatin landscape essential for optimal induction of neuronal programs during direct reprograming. PLoS Genet 2018; 14:e1007846. [PMID: 30557298 PMCID: PMC6312353 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Revised: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
During neuronal development, β-actin serves an important role in growth cone mediated axon guidance. Consistent with this notion, in vivo ablation of the β-actin gene leads to abnormalities in the nervous system. However, whether β-actin is involved in the regulation of neuronal gene programs is not known. In this study, we directly reprogramed β-actin+/+ WT, β-actin+/- HET and β-actin-/- KO mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEFs) into chemically induced neurons (CiNeurons). Using RNA-seq analysis, we profiled the transcriptome changes among the CiNeurons. We discovered that induction of neuronal gene programs was impaired in KO CiNeurons in comparison to WT ones, whereas HET CiNeurons showed an intermediate levels of induction. ChIP-seq analysis of heterochromatin markers demonstrated that the impaired expression of neuronal gene programs correlated with the elevated H3K9 and H3K27 methylation levels at gene loci in β-actin deficient MEFs, which is linked to the loss of chromatin association of the BAF complex ATPase subunit Brg1. Together, our study shows that heterochromatin alteration in β-actin null MEFs impedes the induction of neuronal gene programs during direct reprograming. These findings are in line with the notion that H3K9Me3-based heterochromatin forms a major epigenetic barrier during cell fate change. Although β-actin plays an important role in growth cone mediated axon guidance in neurons, the potential role of β-actin in controlling neuron differentiation remains unknown. Here, we converted β-actin+/+ WT, β-actin+/- HET and β-actin-/- KO mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEFs) into chemically induced neurons (CiNeurons) by direct reprograming. We found that the up-regulation of neuronal programs was impaired in β-actin-/- CiNeurons in comparison to WT ones. β-actin+/- HET CiNeurons showed an intermediate level of neuronal program expression, suggesting that β-actin dosage plays an important role during direct neuronal reprograming. Importantly, the impaired up-regulation of neuron-related genes was associated with the elevated H3K9 and H3K27 methylation levels at gene loci in KO MEFs. These epigenetic changes were accompanied by the impaired chromatin association of Brg1-containing chromatin remodeling BAF complex in β-actin null cells. Together our study demonstrates that β-actin is required for the optimal induction of neuronal gene programs during direct reprograming by presetting a favorable chromatin status.
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Yano S, Fujimoto A, Morin-Leisk J, Matumoto N, Miyake N, Gillespie M, Gao H. New SMARCE1 variant in a patient with features overlapping with oculoauriculofrontonasal syndrome. Clin Genet 2018; 94:487-488. [PMID: 30209809 DOI: 10.1111/cge.13436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shoji Yano
- Genetics Division, Pediatrics, LAC-USC Medical Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Atsuko Fujimoto
- Genetics Division, Pediatrics, LAC-USC Medical Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | | | - Naomichi Matumoto
- Human Genetics, Yokohama City University, Graduate School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Noriko Miyake
- Human Genetics, Yokohama City University, Graduate School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan
| | | | - Harry Gao
- Fulgent Genetics, Temple City, California
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Shpargel KB, Starmer J, Wang C, Ge K, Magnuson T. UTX-guided neural crest function underlies craniofacial features of Kabuki syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E9046-E9055. [PMID: 29073101 PMCID: PMC5664495 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1705011114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Kabuki syndrome, a congenital craniofacial disorder, manifests from mutations in an X-linked histone H3 lysine 27 demethylase (UTX/KDM6A) or a H3 lysine 4 methylase (KMT2D). However, the cellular and molecular etiology of histone-modifying enzymes in craniofacial disorders is unknown. We now establish Kabuki syndrome as a neurocristopathy, whereby the majority of clinical features are modeled in mice carrying neural crest (NC) deletion of UTX, including craniofacial dysmorphism, cardiac defects, and postnatal growth retardation. Female UTX NC knockout (FKO) demonstrates enhanced phenotypic severity over males (MKOs), due to partial redundancy with UTY, a Y-chromosome demethylase-dead homolog. Thus, NC cells may require demethylase-independent UTX activity. Consistently, Kabuki causative point mutations upstream of the JmjC domain do not disrupt UTX demethylation. We have isolated primary NC cells at a phenocritical postmigratory timepoint in both FKO and MKO mice, and genome-wide expression and histone profiling have revealed UTX molecular function in establishing appropriate chromatin structure to regulate crucial NC stem-cell signaling pathways. However, the majority of UTX regulated genes do not experience aberrations in H3K27me3 or H3K4me3, implicating alternative roles for UTX in transcriptional control. These findings are substantiated through demethylase-dead knockin mutation of UTX, which supports appropriate facial development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl B Shpargel
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264
| | - Joshua Starmer
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264
| | - Chaochen Wang
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Kai Ge
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Terry Magnuson
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264;
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264
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