Pseudoacromegaly

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome in the Context of Pituitary Adenomas: Prevalence, Pathophysiology and Clinical Management

OBJECTIVE

Many review articles have explored data regarding the coexistence of specific types of pituitary adenomas (PAs) and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), particularly focusing on the potential pathogenesis of this intersection and overlapping features. However, a comprehensive evaluation encompassing the full spectrum of PAs and their association with PCOS remains lacking. This review aims to provide a broad assessment of the interactions between these entities, emphasizing pathophysiological mechanisms, clinical presentations, diagnostic challenges and therapeutic implications.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was conducted in the PubMed/MEDLINE database, focusing primarily on publications from the years 2000 to 2024, while also including seminal papers from the 1950s. The reference lists of selected articles were also manually searched. Inclusion criteria encompassed review articles, retrospective studies, clinical trials, case reports and meta-analyses providing data on the pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnostic challenges and therapeutic approaches related to PCOS and different PAs.

RESULTS

PCOS and functioning PAs often exhibit overlapping clinical features, complicating diagnosis and management. PCOS may precede and delay the diagnosis of growth hormone (GH)-secreting adenomas. The prevalence of PCOS or its features in acromegaly is influenced by disease activity, while approximating 13% in cases with controlled disease. Excess GH and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) adversely affect ovarian function through direct pathways and by inducing insulin resistance, contributing to acromegaly-associated PCOS. In Cushing's syndrome (CS), findings consistent with PCOS may be present in 46% of patients, with cortisol excess contributing to menstrual dysfunction, hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance. While the prevalence of PCOS in patients with prolactinomas remains under-researched, recent studies indicate a 2.8%-10% prevalence of prolactinomas in PCOS. Elevated prolactin (PRL) levels in these patients may promote insulin resistance, further contributing to PCOS pathogenesis. Moreover, increased androgen bioavailability may be observed in all three aforementioned adenomas. To date, no studies have provided prevalence data for PCOS in other types of PAs.

CONCLUSIONS

Distinct clinical features, along with biochemical evaluations and imaging, can help differentiate the presence of both PAs and PCOS. Moreover, excluding other mimicking disorders is essential for an accurate diagnosis of PCOS. The persistence or recurrence of menstrual dysfunction, hyperandrogenism and metabolic disturbances in patients with controlled functioning adenomas may indicate a coexisting PCOS diagnosis. Timely diagnosis may optimize management and improve long-term outcomes for both conditions. Future studies should focus on investigating the clinical differences between patients with co-occurring PCOS and PAs compared to those with PCOS alone, ideally in larger cohorts, to better understand unique diagnostic and therapeutic considerations.

Acromegaly in humans and cats: Pathophysiological, clinical and management resemblances and differences

OBJECTIVE

Acromegaly is a disorder associated with excessive levels of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). In general, GH/IGF-1 excess leads to morphologic craniofacial and acral changes as well as cardiometabolic complications, but the phenotypic changes and clinical presentation of acromegaly differ across species. Here, we review the pathophysiology, clinical presentation and management of acromegaly in humans and cats, and we provide a systematic comparison between this disease across these different species.

DESIGN

A comprehensive literature review of pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis and management of acromegaly in humans and in cats was performed.

RESULTS

Acromegaly is associated with prominent craniofacial changes in both species: frontal bossing, enlarged nose, ears and lips, and protuberant cheekbones are typically encountered in humans, whereas increased width of the head and skull enlargement are commonly found in cats. Malocclusion, prognathism, dental diastema and upper airway obstruction by soft tissue enlargement are reported in both species, as well as continuous growth and widening of extremities resulting in osteoarticular compromise. Increase of articular joint cartilage thickness, vertebral fractures and spine malalignment is more evident in humans, while arthropathy and spondylosis deformans may also occur in cats. Generalized organomegaly is equally observed in both species. Other similarities between humans and cats with acromegaly include heart failure, ventricular hypertrophy, diabetes mellitus, and an overall increased cardiometabolic risk. In GH-secreting pituitary tumours, local compressive effects and behavioral changes are mostly observed in humans, but also present in cats. Cutis verticis gyrata and skin tags are exclusively found in humans, while palmigrade/plantigrade stance may occur in some acromegalic cats. Serum IGF-1 is used for acromegaly diagnosis in both species, but an oral glucose tolerance test with GH measurement is only useful in humans, as glucose load does not inhibit GH secretion in cats. Imaging studies are regularly performed in both species after biochemical diagnosis of acromegaly. Hypophysectomy is the first line treatment for humans and cats, although not always available in veterinary medicine.

CONCLUSION

Acromegaly in humans and cats has substantial similarities, as a result of common pathophysiological mechanisms, however species-specific features may be found.

Pseudoacromegaly-A challenging entity in the endocrine clinic: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Pseudoacromegaly encompasses conditions with features of acromegaly/gigantism, but no growth hormone (GH) or insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) excess. We aimed to review published pseudoacromegaly cases evaluated due to clinical suspicion of acromegaly.

DESIGN/PATIENTS

PubMed/Medline search was conducted to identify reported pseudoacromegaly cases, which were systematically reviewed to ensure they met eligibility criteria: (1) presentation suggestive of acromegaly; (2) acromegaly excluded based on normal GH, IGF-1 and/or GH suppression on oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT-GH); (3) diagnosis of the pseudoacromegaly condition was established. Data were retrieved from each case and analysed collectively.

RESULTS

Of 76 cases, 47 were males, mean ages at presentation and at first acromegaloid symptoms were 28 ± 16 and 17 ± 10 years, respectively. Most common conditions were pachydermoperiostosis (47%) and insulin-mediated pseudoacromegaly (IMP) (24%). Acromegaloid facies (75%) and acral enlargement (80%) were the most common features. Measurement of random GH was reported in 65%, IGF-1 in 79%, OGTT-GH in 51%. GH excess was more frequently excluded based on two tests (53%). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed in 30 patients, with pituitary adenoma or hyperplasia being reported in eight and three patients, respectively. Investigations differed between cases managed by endocrine and non-endocrine specialists, the former requesting more often IGF-1, OGTT-GH and pituitary MRI.

CONCLUSIONS

Pseudoacromegaly is a challenging entity that may be encountered by endocrinologists. Pachydermoperiostosis and IMP are the conditions most often mimicking acromegaly. Adequate assessment of GH/IGF-1 is crucial to exclude acromegaly, which may be better performed by endocrinologists. Pituitary incidentalomas are common and require careful judgement to prevent unnecessary pituitary surgery.

Multidisciplinary Team Care in Pituitary Tumours

The optimal care for patients with pituitary tumours is best provided in a multidisciplinary and collaborative environment, which requires the contribution of multiple medical specialties working together. The benefits and advantages of the pituitary multidisciplinary team (MDT) are broad, and all relevant international consensus and guidelines in the field recommend that patients with pituitary tumours should always be managed in a MDT. Endocrinologists and neurosurgeons are normally the leading specialties within the pituitary MDT, supported by many other specialties with significant contributions to the diagnosis and management of pituitary tumours, including neuropathology, neuroradiology, neuro-ophthalmology, and otorhinolaryngology, among others. Here, we review the literature concerning the concepts of Pituitary MDT/Pituitary Tumour Centre of Excellence (PTCOE) in terms of their mission, goals, benefits, structure, proposed models of function, and barriers, and we also provide the views of different specialists involved in our Pituitary MDT.

The Importance of Acromegaloid Physical Features for Clinical Practice

Acromegaly and gigantism are hormonal disorders which develop as a consequence of chronic growth hormone hypersecretion. The prefix pseudo- is used to describe a certain clinical condition without a clearly proven characteristic of pathophysiological mechanism and basic biochemical features; pseudoacromegaly or acromegaloidism match the definition from above. In this case reports, we will try to provide a concise overview of diagnostic evaluation of acromegaloid physical appearance, while discussing two cases of patients who have similar clinical acromegaloid features as the first sign of the disease but have completely different etiologic backgrounds of their acromegalic appearance. The first case is of a 57-year-old male who presented with a marked acral growth and coarse facial features, but the diagnosis of secondary amyloidosis caused by multiple myeloma was confirmed just after biopsy of tongue and buccal mucosa. The second case is that of a 63-year-old male with an acromegaloid appearance caused by ectopic secretion of GH secreting lung carcinoma. The early diagnosis of ectopic acromegaly and pseudoacromegaly is still a challenging process. The key task is to confirm the GH axis abnormalities and establish the underlying disease, as a crucial step for faster treatment and need to avoid unnecessary therapeutic procedures to decreased mortality and improved quality of life.

Acromegaly-related cutis verticis gyrata

OBJECTIVE

Acromegaly is a disorder caused by hypersecretion of growth hormone (GH), resulting in excessive levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and almost always due to a pituitary tumor. It is classically associated with acral enlargement, prominent facial features and soft tissue overgrowth. Skin manifestations include hirsutism, acne, skin tags, oily skin and acanthosis nigricans. However, other uncommon dermatological features, such as cutis verticis gyrata (CVG), may also occur. Here, we review acromegaly-related CVG aiming to raise awareness for its possible occurrence in this setting, and we discuss its pathophysiology, presentation, management and differential diagnosis.

DESIGN

A comprehensive literature search regarding CVG, particularly CVG related to acromegaly, has been carried out. Case reports, original studies and review papers, were considered.

RESULTS

CVG is a rare benign skin lesion characterized by thickened and folded scalp, resembling the brain gyri and sulci. The diagnosis of CVG mainly relies on clinical examination, although tissue biopsy may be necessary in case of uncertain etiology. In acromegaly, CVG appears to be driven by the trophic effects of GH and IGF-1 on skin and soft tissues. While CVG is uncommon in acromegaly, it seems to occur more frequently in male patients. The management of acromegaly-related CVG essentially relies on controlling the serum levels of GH and IGF-1. Surgical skin procedures should be reserved for patients with severe aesthetic distress, after achieving the best possible control of acromegaly.

CONCLUSIONS

CVG is a rare manifestation of acromegaly that may allow an earlier diagnosis and a swifter treatment of these patients, which in turn may improve or entirely reverse such remarkable skin lesions.

Approach to the Patient With Pseudoacromegaly

Pseudoacromegaly encompasses a heterogeneous group of conditions in which patients have clinical features of acromegaly or gigantism, but no excess of GH or IGF-1. Acromegaloid physical features or accelerated growth in a patient may prompt referral to endocrinologists. Because pseudoacromegaly conditions are rare and heterogeneous, often with overlapping clinical features, the underlying diagnosis may be challenging to establish. As many of these have a genetic origin, such as pachydermoperiostosis, Sotos syndrome, Weaver syndrome, or Cantú syndrome, collaboration is key with clinical geneticists in the diagnosis of these patients. Although rare, awareness of these uncommon conditions and their characteristic features will help their timely recognition.

GHRH secretion from a pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor causing gigantism in a patient with MEN1

SUMMARY

A male patient with a germline mutation in MEN1 presented at the age of 18 with classical features of gigantism. Previously, he had undergone resection of an insulin-secreting pancreatic neuroendocrine tumour (pNET) at the age of 10 years and had subtotal parathyroidectomy due to primary hyperparathyroidism at the age of 15 years. He was found to have significantly elevated serum IGF-1, GH, GHRH and calcitonin levels. Pituitary MRI showed an overall bulky gland with a 3 mm hypoechoic area. Abdominal MRI showed a 27 mm mass in the head of the pancreas and a 6 mm lesion in the tail. Lanreotide-Autogel 120 mg/month reduced GHRH by 45% and IGF-1 by 20%. Following pancreaticoduodenectomy, four NETs were identified with positive GHRH and calcitonin staining and Ki-67 index of 2% in the largest lesion. The pancreas tail lesion was not removed. Post-operatively, GHRH and calcitonin levels were undetectable, IGF-1 levels normalised and GH suppressed normally on glucose challenge. Post-operative fasting glucose and HbA1c levels have remained normal at the last check-up. While adolescent-onset cases of GHRH-secreting pNETs have been described, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported case of ectopic GHRH in a paediatric setting leading to gigantism in a patient with MEN1. Our case highlights the importance of distinguishing between pituitary and ectopic causes of gigantism, especially in the setting of MEN1, where paediatric somatotroph adenomas causing gigantism are extremely rare.

LEARNING POINTS

It is important to diagnose gigantism and its underlying cause (pituitary vs ectopic) early in order to prevent further growth and avoid unnecessary pituitary surgery. The most common primary tumour sites in ectopic acromegaly include the lung (53%) and the pancreas (34%) (1): 76% of patients with a pNET secreting GHRH showed a MEN1 mutation (1). Plasma GHRH testing is readily available in international laboratories and can be a useful diagnostic tool in distinguishing between pituitary acromegaly mediated by GH and ectopic acromegaly mediated by GHRH. Positive GHRH immunostaining in the NET tissue confirms the diagnosis. Distinguishing between pituitary (somatotroph) hyperplasia secondary to ectopic GHRH and pituitary adenoma is difficult and requires specialist neuroradiology input and consideration, especially in the MEN1 setting. It is important to note that the vast majority of GHRH-secreting tumours (lung, pancreas, phaeochromocytoma) are expected to be visible on cross-sectional imaging (median diameter 55 mm) (1). Therefore, we suggest that a chest X-ray and an abdominal ultrasound checking the adrenal glands and the pancreas should be included in the routine work-up of newly diagnosed acromegaly patients.

Pseudoacromegaly with acromegalic features in radiography

Pseudoacromegaly is a condition characterized by acromegalic physical features without growth hormone excess, for which radiographic observation has seldom been reported. This is a rare case of pseudoacromegaly.

The clinical aspects of pituitary tumour genetics

BACKGROUND

Pituitary tumours are usually benign and relatively common intracranial tumours, with under- and overexpression of pituitary hormones and local mass effects causing considerable morbidity and increased mortality. While most pituitary tumours are sporadic, around 5% of the cases arise in a familial setting, either isolated [familial isolated pituitary adenoma, related to AIP or X-linked acrogigantism], or in a syndromic disorder, such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 or 4, Carney complex, McCune-Albright syndrome, phaeochromocytoma/paraganglioma with pituitary adenoma, DICER1 syndrome, Lynch syndrome, and USP8-related syndrome. Genetically determined pituitary tumours usually present at younger age and show aggressive behaviour, and are often resistant to different treatment modalities.

SUBJECT

In this practical summary, we take a practical approach: which genetic syndromes should be considered in case of different presentation, such as tumour type, family history, age of onset and additional clinical features of the patient.

CONCLUSION

The identification of the causative mutation allows genetic and clinical screening of relatives at risk, resulting in earlier diagnosis, a better therapeutic response and ultimately to better long-term outcomes.

Pseudoacromegaly Associated with Non-Functioning Pituitary Adenoma

Acromegaly is characterized by excess skin and soft tissue growth due to increased growth hormone (GH) levels. Patients with similar physical findings but without somatotroph axis abnormalities are considered to have pseudoacromegaly. The list of pseudoacromegaly differential diagnoses is long. It may be caused by several congenital and acquired conditions and diagnosis can be challenging due to its rarity and occasional overlapping of some of these conditions. The presence of a pituitary tumour in such cases may lead to a misdiagnosis of acromegaly, and thus, biochemical evaluation is key. Here, we present a case of pseudoacromegaly with an acromegaloid phenotype, normal IGF levels, a supressed GH response to an oral glucose tolerance test, moderate insulin resistance and non-functioning pituitary microadenoma.

LEARNING POINTS

There are several conditions that present with clinical aspects of acromegaly or gigantism but without growth hormone (GH) excess. Such cases are described as "pseudoacromegaly" or "acromegaloidism".In cases of excessive soft tissue growth with normal GH levels, other growth promotors (for example, thyroid hormone, sex hormones, insulin and others) should be taken into consideration.Biochemical confirmation of GH excess in patients presenting with clinical features of acromegaly and pituitary adenoma should always be considered to avoid unnecessary surgeries.

Multidisciplinary protocol of preoperative and surgical management of patients with pituitary tumors candidates to pituitary surgery

The optimal planning of preoperative diagnosis, management and treatment of pituitary tumors (PT) candidates to pituitary surgery (PS) requires a multidisciplinary approach involving a team of endocrinologists, neurosurgeons, ENT, neuro-ophthalmologists and neuroradiologists with experience in pituitary diseases. Such teams improve surgical results, minimize complications and facilitate their correct treatment if occurring, and optimize the hormonal, ophthalmological and radiological preoperative and follow-up evaluation. We have developed a clinical practice protocol for patients with PT who are candidates to PS based on the most recent national and international guidelines and the relevant literature regarding PT published in the last years. The protocol has been elaborated by a multidisciplinary team of a Spanish Pituitary Tumor Center of Excellence (PTCE) that includes at least one neurosurgeon, ENT, neuroradiologist, neuro-ophthalmologist, endocrine pathologist and endocrinologist specialized in pituitary diseases. We elaborated this guideline with the aim of sharing our experience with other centers involved in the perioperative and surgical management of PT thereby facilitating the management of patients undergoing PS.