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Beltz AM. Hormonal contraceptives and behavior: Updating the potent state of the nascent science. Horm Behav 2024; 164:105574. [PMID: 38972245 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2024.105574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2024] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
Hundreds of millions of people worldwide use hormonal contraceptives (HCs), which have been an essential part of women's reproductive health care for decades. Throughout that time, however, research on the neural and behavioral consequences of HCs was minimal and plagued by poor methodology. HC effects - and users - were assumed to be homogenous. Fortunately, there has been a recent upswell in the number and quality of investigations, affording tentative conclusions about the roles of HCs in spatial cognition and mental health, particularly depression. Thus, this paper leverages findings from the past few years to highlight the heterogeneous aspects of use that seem to matter for behavior - ranging from variation in hormonal contraceptive formulations and routes of administration to individual differences among users linked to age and reproductive health history. This paper closes with five tips for future research that will help capture and clarify heterogeneity in potential relations between HCs and behavior, namely data collection, regional access, lifespan factors, gender, and collaboration. HCs are sociopolitically provocative and research on their potential behavioral neuroendocrine impacts is becoming increasingly popular. It is, therefore, imperative for scientists to conduct replicable and robust empirical investigations, and to communicate findings with the nuance that the heterogeneity among users and effects requires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriene M Beltz
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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2
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McNealy KR, Oevermann MW, Knabel ML, Fitzwater A, Gipson CD, Barrett ST, Bevins RA. Repeated exposure to physiologically effective doses of contraceptive hormones ethinyl estradiol or levonorgestrel do not alter the reinforcing effects of a brief visual stimulus in ovary-intact rats. Horm Behav 2024; 161:105506. [PMID: 38387104 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2024.105506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Estradiol and progesterone potentiate and attenuate reward processes, respectively. Despite these well-characterized effects, there is minimal research on the effects of synthetic estrogens (e.g., ethinyl estradiol, or EE) and progestins (e.g., levonorgestrel, or LEVO) contained in clinically-utilized hormonal contraceptives. The present study characterized the separate effects of repeated exposure to EE or LEVO on responding maintained by a reinforcing visual stimulus. Forty ovary-intact female Sprague-Dawley rats received either sesame oil vehicle (n = 16), 0.18 μg/day EE (n = 16), or 0.6 μg/day LEVO (n = 8) subcutaneous injections 30-min before daily one-hour sessions. Rats' responding was maintained by a 30-sec visual stimulus on a Variable Ratio-3 schedule of reinforcement. The day after rats' last session, we determined rats estrous cycle phase via vaginal cytology before sacrifice and subsequently weighing each rat's uterus to further verify the contraceptive hormone manipulation. The visual stimulus functioned as a reinforcer, but neither EE nor LEVO enhanced visual stimulus maintained responding. Estrous cytology was consistent with normal cycling in vehicle rats and halting of normal cycling in EE and LEVO rats. EE increased uterine weights consistent with typical uterotrophic effects observed with estrogens, further confirming the physiological impacts of our EE and LEVO doses. In conclusion, a physiologically effective dose of neither EE nor LEVO did not alter the reinforcing efficacy of a visual stimulus reinforcer. Future research should characterize the effects of hormonal contraceptives on responding maintained by other reinforcer types to determine the generality of the present findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen R McNealy
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Psychology, 238 Burnett Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
| | - Matthew W Oevermann
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Psychology, 238 Burnett Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - MacKenzie L Knabel
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Psychology, 238 Burnett Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Anna Fitzwater
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Institutional Animal Care Program, 2200 Vine Street, 278 Prem S. Paul Research Center at Whittier School, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - Cassandra D Gipson
- University of Kentucky, Department of Pharmacology and Nutrition Sciences, 780 Rose Street, MS305, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Scott T Barrett
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Psychology, 238 Burnett Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Rick A Bevins
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Psychology, 238 Burnett Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
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Smith AC, Smilek D. On the relation between oral contraceptive use and self-control. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2024; 15:1335384. [PMID: 38628592 PMCID: PMC11018928 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2024.1335384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
In two studies we examined the relation between oral contraceptive (OC) use and self-reported levels of self-control in undergraduate women using OCs (Study 1: OC group N = 399, Study 2: OC group N = 288) and naturally cycling women not using any form of hormonal contraceptives (Study 1: Non-OC group N = 964, Study 2: Non-OC group N = 997). We assessed the self-overriding aspect of self-control using the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS) and strategies for self-regulation using the Regulatory Mode Scale (RMS), which separately measures the tendency to assess one's progress towards a goal (assessment), and the tendency to engage in activities that move one towards an end goal (locomotion). In Study 1, we found no significant differences between OC and non-OC groups in their levels of self-overriding or self-regulatory assessment. However, we found that those in the OC group reported significantly greater levels of self-regulatory locomotion compared to those in the non-OC group, even after controlling for depression symptoms and the semester of data collection. The findings from Study 2 replicated the findings from Study 1 in a different sample of participants, with the exception that OC use was also related to higher levels of assessment in Study 2. These results indicate that OC use is related to increases in self-regulatory actions in service of goal pursuit and perhaps the tendency to evaluate progress towards goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa C. Smith
- Department of Psychology University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
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Cartier L, Guérin M, Saulnier F, Cotocea I, Mohammedi A, Moussaoui F, Kheloui S, Juster RP. Sex and gender correlates of sexually polymorphic cognition. Biol Sex Differ 2024; 15:3. [PMID: 38191503 PMCID: PMC10773055 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-023-00579-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sexually polymorphic cognition (SPC) results from the interaction between biological (birth-assigned sex (BAS), sex hormones) and socio-cultural (gender identity, gender roles, sexual orientation) factors. The literature remains quite mixed regarding the magnitude of the effects of these variables. This project used a battery of classic cognitive tests designed to assess the influence of sex hormones on cognitive performance. At the same time, we aimed to assess the inter-related and respective effects that BAS, sex hormones, and gender-related factors have on SPC. METHODS We recruited 222 adults who completed eight cognitive tasks that assessed a variety of cognitive domains during a 150-min session. Subgroups were separated based on gender identity and sexual orientation and recruited as follows: cisgender heterosexual men (n = 46), cisgender non-heterosexual men (n = 36), cisgender heterosexual women (n = 36), cisgender non-heterosexual women (n = 38), gender diverse (n = 66). Saliva samples were collected before, during, and after the test to assess testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, cortisol, and dehydroepiandrosterone. Psychosocial variables were derived from self-report questionnaires. RESULTS Cognitive performance reflects sex and gender differences that are partially consistent with the literature. Interestingly, biological factors seem to better explain differences in male-typed cognitive tasks (i.e., spatial), while psychosocial factors seem to better explain differences in female-typed cognitive tasks (i.e., verbal). CONCLUSION Our results establish a better comprehension of SPC over and above the effects of BAS as a binary variable. We highlight the importance of treating sex as a biological factor and gender as a socio-cultural factor together since they collectively influence SPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Cartier
- Center on Sex*Gender, Allostasis, and Resilience, Research Center of the Montreal Mental Health University Institute, 7331, Rue Hochelaga, Montreal, QC, H1N 3V2, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry and Addiction, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Mina Guérin
- Center on Sex*Gender, Allostasis, and Resilience, Research Center of the Montreal Mental Health University Institute, 7331, Rue Hochelaga, Montreal, QC, H1N 3V2, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Fanny Saulnier
- Center on Sex*Gender, Allostasis, and Resilience, Research Center of the Montreal Mental Health University Institute, 7331, Rue Hochelaga, Montreal, QC, H1N 3V2, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry and Addiction, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Ioana Cotocea
- Center on Sex*Gender, Allostasis, and Resilience, Research Center of the Montreal Mental Health University Institute, 7331, Rue Hochelaga, Montreal, QC, H1N 3V2, Canada
| | - Amine Mohammedi
- Center on Sex*Gender, Allostasis, and Resilience, Research Center of the Montreal Mental Health University Institute, 7331, Rue Hochelaga, Montreal, QC, H1N 3V2, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Fadila Moussaoui
- Center on Sex*Gender, Allostasis, and Resilience, Research Center of the Montreal Mental Health University Institute, 7331, Rue Hochelaga, Montreal, QC, H1N 3V2, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Sarah Kheloui
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Robert-Paul Juster
- Center on Sex*Gender, Allostasis, and Resilience, Research Center of the Montreal Mental Health University Institute, 7331, Rue Hochelaga, Montreal, QC, H1N 3V2, Canada.
- Department of Psychiatry and Addiction, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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Davignon LM, Brouillard A, Juster RP, Marin MF. The role of sex hormones, oral contraceptive use, and its parameters on visuospatial abilities, verbal fluency, and verbal memory. Horm Behav 2024; 157:105454. [PMID: 37981465 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2023.105454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Sex hormones can cross the blood-brain barrier and access brain regions underlying higher-order cognition. Containing synthetic sex hormones, oral contraceptives (OC) have been found to modulate visuospatial and verbal abilities, though inconsistencies have been found in the literature. Among possible explanations, certain OC use parameters (progestin androgenicity, synthetic hormone levels, duration of use) have not received consistent consideration. Thus, the objectives were to (1) examine group differences between men, combined OC users, and naturally cycling women (NC women; not using OC) in visuospatial abilities, verbal fluency, and verbal memory and (2) investigate the contribution of endogenous and exogenous sex hormones on these effects. We also aimed to (3) identify OC use parameters relevant to cognitive outcomes. In total, 70 combined OC users, 53 early follicular (EF) women, 43 pre-ovulatory (PO) women, and 47 men underwent cognitive tests. Performance was compared based on hormonal milieus (OC, EF, PO, men) and OC users' contraceptive androgenicity (anti, low, high). Correlations between performance, hormone levels and OC use duration were also conducted. OC use dampened the sex difference that typically favors men in 3D visuospatial abilities, whereas its duration of use positively predicted verbal fluency. Androgenicity and hormone levels did not predict performance in any task. These results highlight the importance of considering OC use duration. Results also did not support a role for androgenicity in cognition. Importantly, combined OC use (including prolonged use) does not impair visuospatial, verbal, and memory functions in a healthy young sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa-Marie Davignon
- Research Center of the Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, 7331 Hochelaga Street, Montreal H1N 3J4, Canada; Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal, 100 Sherbrooke Street W, Montreal H2X 2P3, Canada
| | - Alexandra Brouillard
- Research Center of the Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, 7331 Hochelaga Street, Montreal H1N 3J4, Canada; Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal, 100 Sherbrooke Street W, Montreal H2X 2P3, Canada
| | - Robert-Paul Juster
- Research Center of the Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, 7331 Hochelaga Street, Montreal H1N 3J4, Canada; Department of Psychiatry and Addiction, Université de Montréal, 2900 Edouard-Montpetit Boulevard, Montreal H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Marie-France Marin
- Research Center of the Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Montréal, 7331 Hochelaga Street, Montreal H1N 3J4, Canada; Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal, 100 Sherbrooke Street W, Montreal H2X 2P3, Canada; Department of Psychiatry and Addiction, Université de Montréal, 2900 Edouard-Montpetit Boulevard, Montreal H3T 1J4, Canada.
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Smith AC, Marty-Dugas J, Smilek D. Examining the relation between oral contraceptive use and attentional engagement in everyday life. Front Hum Neurosci 2023; 17:1147515. [PMID: 37323924 PMCID: PMC10267369 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1147515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral contraceptives (OCs) used by women worldwide include artificial estradiol and progesterone, which can attach to receptors in the brain and potentially influence cognition. In the present studies, we examined the relation between OC use and self-reported everyday attention. We collected trait-level measures of mind wandering, attention-related errors, and attention lapses in undergraduate women using OCs (Study 1: OC group N = 471, Study 2: OC group N = 246) and naturally cycling women not using any form of hormonal contraceptives (Study 1: Non-OC group N = 1,330, Study 2: Non-OC group N = 929). In Study 1, we found that women using OCs reported significantly less spontaneous and deliberate mind wandering than naturally cycling women and no differences between groups on attention-related errors and attention lapses. In Study 2, our findings indicated no significant differences between groups on any of our attention measures. Regression analyses controlling for depression symptoms and semester of data collection found that OC use did predict unique additional variance on some attention measures, but these effects were small and unreliable across the two studies. Taken together, our data suggests there is little evidence that OC use is related to differences in attentional engagement in everyday life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa C. Smith
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Jeremy Marty-Dugas
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Daniel Smilek
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
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7
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Lacasse JM, Ismail N, Tronson NC. Editorial overview: Hormonal contraceptives and the brain: A call for translational research. Front Neuroendocrinol 2023; 69:101063. [PMID: 36806552 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2023.101063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse M Lacasse
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St Catharines, ON, Canada; Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nafissa Ismail
- Department of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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