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Dederichs TM, Huber BA, Michalik P. Evolutionary morphology of sperm in pholcid spiders (Pholcidae, Synspermiata). BMC ZOOL 2022; 7:52. [PMID: 37170331 PMCID: PMC10127419 DOI: 10.1186/s40850-022-00148-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Pholcidae represent one of the largest and most diverse spider families and have been subject to various studies regarding behavior and reproductive biology. In contrast to the solid knowledge on phylogeny and general reproductive morphology, the primary male reproductive system is strongly understudied, as it has been addressed only for few species. Those studies however suggested a high diversity of sperm and seminal secretions across the family. To address this disparity and reconstruct the evolution of sperm traits, we investigate the primary male reproductive system of pholcid spiders by means of light, X-ray, and transmission electron microscopy using a comprehensive taxon sampling with 46 species from 33 genera, representing all five subfamilies.
Results
Our data show a high disparity of sperm morphology and seminal secretions within pholcids. We document several sperm characters that are unique for pholcids, such as a helical band (Pholcinae) or a lamellate posterior centriolar adjunct material (Modisiminae). Character mapping revealed several putative synapomorphies for individual taxa. With regard to sperm transfer forms, we found that synspermia occur only in the subfamily Ninetinae, whereas the other subfamilies have cleistospermia. In several species with cleistospermia, we demonstrate that spermatids remain fused until late stages of spermiogenesis before ultimately separating shortly before the coiling process. Additionally, we explored the previously hypothesized correlation between sperm size and minimum diameter of the spermophor in the male palpal organ. We show that synspermia differ strongly in size whereas cleistospermia are rather uniform, but neither transfer form is positively correlated with the diameter of the spermophor.
Conclusions
Our data revealed a dynamic evolution of sperm characters, with convergences across all subfamilies and a high level of homoplasy. The present diversity can be related to subfamily level and allows for assignments of specific subtypes of spermatozoa. Our observations support the idea that Ninetinae are an ancestral clade within Pholcidae that have retained synspermia and that synspermia represent the ancestral sperm transfer form of Pholcidae.
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Dharmarathne WDSC, Herberstein ME. Limitations of sperm transfer in the complex reproductive system of spiders. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In spiders, sperm transfer from the male to the female is indirect via secondary copulatory structures, the pedipalps. At the time of transfer the sperm are not mobile and the ejaculate needs to move through narrow male and female ducts to the female sperm storage organ. In addition, copulation duration can be very short, often limited to just a few seconds. Finally, sexual cannibalism and genital damage limits male life-time mating opportunities. These features of the reproductive biology in spiders are likely to result in sperm transfer constraints. Here we review the intrinsic and extrinsic sperm transfer limitations and conduct a meta-analysis on sperm transfer data from published data. Most of the information available relates to orb-web spiders, but our meta-analysis also includes non-orb-web spiders. Our review identifies some of the behavioural factors that have been shown to influence sperm transfer, and lists several morphological and physiological traits where we do not yet know how they might affect sperm transfer.
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Kim H, Seo JH, Kim KJ, Chung KH, Moon MJ. Fine structural reconstruction on the testicular cyst of the furrow orb weaver,Larinioides cornutusby 3D volume rendering. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2016.1228544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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Lipke E, Michalik P. Evolutionary Morphology of the Primary Male Reproductive System and Spermatozoa of Goblin Spiders (Oonopidae; Araneae). BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 2015. [DOI: 10.1206/906.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Ceballos L, Jones TM, Elgar MA. Patterns of Sperm Transfer in the Golden Orb-WeaverNephila edulis. Ethology 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leonor Ceballos
- School of BioSciences; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
- Departamento de Biología Comparada; Facultad de Ciencias; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; México Mexico
| | - Therésa M. Jones
- School of BioSciences; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
| | - Mark A. Elgar
- School of BioSciences; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
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Michalik P, Ramírez MJ. Evolutionary morphology of the male reproductive system, spermatozoa and seminal fluid of spiders (Araneae, Arachnida)--current knowledge and future directions. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2014; 43:291-322. [PMID: 24907603 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2014.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Revised: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The male reproductive system and spermatozoa of spiders are known for their high structural diversity. Spider spermatozoa are flagellate and males transfer them to females in a coiled and encapsulated state using their modified pedipalps. Here, we provide a detailed overview of the present state of knowledge of the primary male reproductive system, sperm morphology and the structural diversity of seminal fluids with a focus on functional and evolutionary implications. Secondly, we conceptualized characters for the male genital system, spermiogenesis and spermatozoa for the first time based on published and new data. In total, we scored 40 characters for 129 species from 56 families representing all main spider clades. We obtained synapomorphies for several taxa including Opisthothelae, Araneomorphae, Dysderoidea, Scytodoidea, Telemidae, Linyphioidea, Mimetidae, Synotaxidae and the Divided Cribellum Clade. Furthermore, we recovered synspermia as a synapomorphy for ecribellate Haplogynae and thus propose Synspermiata as new name for this clade. We hope that these data will not only contribute to future phylogenetic studies but will also stimulate much needed evolutionary studies of reproductive systems in spiders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Michalik
- Allgemeine und Systematische Zoologie, Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, J.-S.-Bach-Straße 11/12, D-17489 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Martín J Ramírez
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia" - CONICET, Av. Angel Gallardo 470, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Vöcking O, Uhl G, Michalik P. Sperm dynamics in spiders (Araneae): ultrastructural analysis of the sperm activation process in the garden spider Argiope bruennichi (Scopoli, 1772). PLoS One 2013; 8:e72660. [PMID: 24039790 PMCID: PMC3765205 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Storage of sperm inside the female genital tract is an integral phase of reproduction in many animal species. The sperm storage site constitutes the arena for sperm activation, sperm competition and female sperm choice. Consequently, to understand animal mating systems information on the processes that occur from sperm transfer to fertilization is required. Here, we focus on sperm activation in spiders. Male spiders produce sperm whose cell components are coiled within the sperm cell and that are surrounded by a proteinaceous sheath. These inactive and encapsulated sperm are transferred to the female spermathecae where they are stored for later fertilization. We analyzed the ultrastructural changes of sperm cells during residency time in the female genital system of the orb-web spider Argiope bruennichi. We found three clearly distinguishable sperm conditions: encapsulated sperm (secretion sheath present), decapsulated (secretion sheath absent) and uncoiled sperm (cell components uncoiled, presumably activated). After insemination, sperm remain in the encapsulated condition for several days and become decapsulated after variable periods of time. A variable portion of the decapsulated sperm transforms rapidly to the uncoiled condition resulting in a simultaneous occurrence of decapsulated and uncoiled sperm. After oviposition, only decapsulated and uncoiled sperm are left in the spermathecae, strongly suggesting that the activation process is not reversible. Furthermore, we found four different types of secretion in the spermathecae which might play a role in the decapsulation and activation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Vöcking
- University of Greifswald, Zoological Institute and Museum, Department of General and Systematic Zoology, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Gabriele Uhl
- University of Greifswald, Zoological Institute and Museum, Department of General and Systematic Zoology, Greifswald, Germany
- * E-mail: (GU); (PM)
| | - Peter Michalik
- University of Greifswald, Zoological Institute and Museum, Department of General and Systematic Zoology, Greifswald, Germany
- * E-mail: (GU); (PM)
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Lipke E, Michalik P. Formation of primary sperm conjugates in a haplogyne spider (Caponiidae, Araneae) with remarks on the evolution of sperm conjugation in spiders. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2012; 41:561-573. [PMID: 22982877 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2012.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2012] [Revised: 08/21/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Sperm conjugation, where two or more sperm are physically united, is a rare but widespread pheno-menon across the animal kingdom. One group well known for its different types of sperm conjugation are spiders. Particularly, haplogyne spiders show a high diversity of sperm traits. Besides individual cleistospermia, primary (synspermia) and secondary (coenospermia, "spermatophore") sperm conjugation occurs. However, the evolution of sperm conjugates and sperm is not understood in this group. Here, we look at how sperm are transferred in Caponiidae (Haplogynae) in pursuit of additional information about the evolution of sperm transfer forms in spiders. Additionally, we investigated the male reproductive system and spermatozoa using light- and transmission electron-microscopy and provide a 3D reconstruction of individual as of well as conjugated spermatozoa. Mature spermatozoa are characterized by an extremely elongated, helical nucleus resulting in the longest spider sperm known to date. At the end of spermiogenesis, synspermia are formed by complete fusion of four spermatids. Thus, synspermia might have evolved early within ecribellate Haplogynae. The fused sperm cells are surrounded by a prominent vesicular area. The function of the vesicular area remains still unknown but might be correlated with the capacitation process inside the female. Further phylogenetic and functional implications of the spermatozoa and sperm conjugation are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Lipke
- Allgemeine und Systematische Zoologie, Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany.
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Michalik P, Aisenberg A, Postiglioni R, Lipke E. Spermatozoa and spermiogenesis of the wolf spider Schizocosa malitiosa (Lycosidae, Araneae) and its functional and phylogenetic implications. ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-012-0166-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Michalik P, Rittschof CC. A comparative analysis of the morphology and evolution of permanent sperm depletion in spiders. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16014. [PMID: 21264312 PMCID: PMC3019211 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2010] [Accepted: 12/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Once thought to be energetically cheap and easy to produce, empirical work has shown that sperm is a costly and limited resource for males. In some spider species, there is behavioral evidence that sperm are permanently depleted after a single mating. This extreme degree of mating investment appears to co-occur with other reproductive strategies common to spiders, e.g. genital mutilation and sexual cannibalism. Here we corroborate that sperm depletion in the golden orb-web spider Nephila clavipes is permanent by uncovering its mechanistic basis using light and electron microscopy. In addition, we use a phylogeny-based statistical analysis to test the evolutionary relationships between permanent sperm depletion (PSD) and other reproductive strategies in spiders. Male testes do not produce sperm during adulthood, which is unusual in spiders. Instead, spermatogenesis is nearly synchronous and ends before the maturation molt. Testis size decreases as males approach their maturation molt and reaches its lowest point after sperm is transferred into the male copulatory organs (pedipalps). As a consequence, the amount of sperm available to males for mating is limited to the sperm contained in the pedipalps, and once it is used, males lose their ability to fertilize eggs. Our data suggest that PSD has evolved independently at least three times within web-building spiders and is significantly correlated with the evolution of other mating strategies that limit males to monogamy, including genital mutilation and sexual cannibalism. We conclude that PSD may be an energy-saving adaptation in species where males are limited to monogamy. This could be particularly important in web-building spiders where extreme sexual size dimorphism results in large, sedentary females and small, searching males who rarely feed as adults and are vulnerable to starvation. Future work will explore possible energetic benefits and the evolutionary lability of PSD relative to other mate-limiting reproductive behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Michalik
- Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Greifswald, Germany.
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Klann A, Bird T, Peretti A, Gromov A, Alberti G. Ultrastructure of spermatozoa of solifuges (Arachnida, Solifugae): Possible characters for their phylogeny? Tissue Cell 2009; 41:91-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2008.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2008] [Revised: 07/23/2008] [Accepted: 07/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Talarico G, García Hernández LF, Michalik P. The male genital system of the New World Ricinulei (Arachnida): ultrastructure of spermatozoa and spermiogenesis with special emphasis on its phylogenetic implications. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2008; 37:396-409. [PMID: 18539528 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2008.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2007] [Revised: 01/22/2008] [Accepted: 01/24/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This study is the first report on the male genital system and the sperm structure of the South American genus Cryptocellus and provides a second description for the Central American genus Pseudocellus. The spermatids of the Colombian species Cryptocellus narino are elongated and anteriorly lentoid-shaped due to two conspicuous intracellular electron-dense plates. Two cell protrusions are present, which contain in front of the lentoid part the acrosomal complex and parts of the axoneme and nucleus, and behind the lentoid part the continuing axoneme and nucleus. The acrosomal filament originates from a cap-like acrosomal vacuole, extends into the nuclear canal and ends behind the lentoid part. The nucleus runs parallel to the axoneme. The axoneme possesses a typical 9+2 microtubular pattern. At the end of spermiogenesis the acrosomal complex, nucleus and axoneme coil within the cell forming cleistospermia as transfer form. Our results of Pseudocellus pearsei confirm an earlier study on that genus which is considered to be not closely related to Cryptocellus. According to the present study the sperm structure of the observed Cryptocellus species is very similar to what is described for Pseudocellus.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Talarico
- Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Johann-Sebastian-Bach-Strasse 11/12, 17489 Greifswald, Germany.
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Spermatozoa and sperm packages of the European troglophylous scorpion Belisarius xambeui Simon, 1879 (Troglotayosicidae, Scorpiones). Tissue Cell 2008; 40:411-6. [PMID: 18579173 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2008.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2007] [Revised: 04/02/2008] [Accepted: 04/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Studies on the sperm morphology in scorpions are rare, but the existing investigations already revealed a remarkable interfamiliar diversity. The present study reports for the first time on the spermatozoa and sperm packages of a representative of the family Troglotayosicidae, the troglophylous species Belisarius xambeui. The spermatozoa are characterized by (1) a thread-like nucleus, which is slightly bent anteriorly; (2) an asymmetrical cap-like acrosomal vacuole, which encloses the anterior tip of the nucleus; an acrosomal filament is absent; (3) an axoneme with a 9+0 microtubular pattern; (4) a midpiece consisting of elongated mitochondria coiling around the axoneme; the number can vary between 3 and 6 (mostly 4). At the end of spermiogenesis, the spermatozoa aggregate in order to form oval-shaped sperm packages in which all sperm cells show the same orientation. A single package consists of approximately 150 sperms. A secretion sheath is always absent. The present results might provide new characters for further systematic studies and their phylogenetic implications are briefly discussed.
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Michalik P. Spermatozoa and spermiogenesis of Liphistius cf. phuketensis (Mesothelae, Araneae, Arachnida) with notes on phylogenetic implications. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2007; 36:327-335. [PMID: 18089111 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2007.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2007] [Accepted: 03/07/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The present study deals with the spermatozoa and spermiogenesis of Liphistius cf. phuketensis, a representative of the most primitive and enigmatic spider group Mesothelae. The general organization of the spermatozoa is very similar to the condition known from Amblypygi supporting a sister-group relationship between Araneae and Amblypygi. Besides plesiomorphic characters such as, e.g., an elongated and corkscrew shaped nucleus, the sperm cells are characterized by several apomorphic characters, e.g., the giant body and conspicuous membranous areas which are formed at the end of spermiogenesis. As the transfer form, coenospermia are formed at the end of spermiogenesis, which strongly supports the idea that this type of sperm aggregation is the primitive transfer form within spiders. A very remarkable character of the spermatozoa of some groups of arachnids is the coiling of the main cell organelles at the end of spermiogenesis. Previously, the Mesothelae were believed to be the only spider group which does not show a complete coiling of the main cell organelles. With the present study the first evidence of a complete coiling of spermatozoa within this primitive spider group could be documented, indicating that this character is part of the ground pattern of spider spermatozoa. Consequently, the incomplete coiling seems to be a synapomorphy of certain species of Mesothelae, which sheds new light on the discussion of the phylogenetic relationships of this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Michalik
- Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, J.-S.-Bach-Strasse 11/12, D-17489 Greifswald, Germany.
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