A regional pedal ischemia scoring system for decision analysis in patients with heel ulceration

Extent of heel ulceration influences the outcomes in patients with isolated infrapopliteal limb threatening critical ischemia

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of the extent of heel ulceration on the outcomes of limb threatening critical ischemia due to isolated infrapopliteal disease.

METHODS

A retrospective review identified 989 patients with isolated infrapopliteal disease and heel ulceration treated from 2001 to 2018. The heel was defined as the back of the foot, extending from the Achilles tendon to around the plantar surface and covering the apex of the calcaneum bone. Heel ulceration was categorized into three groups by area: <5 cm², 5 to 10 cm², and >10 cm². The interventions were endovascular, open bypass, major amputation, and wound care. An intention-to-treat analysis by patient group was performed. The 30-day outcomes and amputation-free survival (AFS; survival without a major amputation) were evaluated.

RESULTS

Of the 989 patients, 384 (58% male; average age, 65 years; n = 768 vessels) had undergone isolated endovascular tibial intervention, 124 (45% male; average age, 59 years) had undergone popliteal tibial vein bypass for limb threatening critical ischemia, 219 (52% male; average age, 67 years) had undergone major amputation, and 242 (49% male; average age, 66 years) had received wound care. No difference was found in the 30-day major adverse cardiac events in the endovascular and open bypass groups, with significantly more events in the major amputation group (P = .03). The 30-day major adverse limb events and 30-day amputation rates were equivalent between the open bypass and endovascular groups. The 5-year AFS rate was superior in the open bypass group (37% ± 8%; mean ± standard error of the mean) compared with the endovascular group (27% ± 9%; P = .04). The wound care group had a 5-year AFS rate of 20% ± 9%, which was not significantly different from that of the endovascular group. Patients with heel ulcers of <5 cm² had better AFS (47% ± 8%) than those with 5- to 10- cm² heel ulceration (24% ± 9%). Heel ulcers >10 cm² were associated with markedly worse 5-year AFS outcomes (0% ± 0%). The presence of end-stage renal disease, osteomyelitis, uncontrolled diabetes (hemoglobin A_1c >10%), and/or frailty combined with a heel ulcer >10 cm² were predictive of poor AFS.

CONCLUSIONS

An increasing heel ulcer area combined with osteomyelitis and systemic comorbidities was associated with worsening 30-day outcomes and 5-year AFS, irrespective of the therapy chosen.

Transcutaneous oxygen pressure (TcPO2) and ulcer outcome in diabetic patients: Is there any correlation?

BACKGROUND

Due to poor blood circulation, the prevalence of foot ulcer is extensively reported among diabetic patients. Diabetic neuropathy is the critical factor of diabetes that can affect the nerves.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the outcomes and correlation between TcPO2 and ulcer outcomes among diabetic patients.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A prospective cohort design has been employed to compare and correlate TcPO2 group with ulcer outcomes. A total of 192 patients were enrolled, who underwent diagnosis for ulcer outcome. Descriptive analysis and Pearson Correlation were used for data analysis via SPSS version 20.

RESULTS

The prevalence of minor amputation among diabetic patients in 25-40 mmHg 75 (85.22%) and >40 mmhG 73 (84.88%) group is reported for ulcer outcome. Mostly diabetic patients were healed with intact skin (male = 36, female = 73), and improved ulcer healing (male = 23, female = 43). Correlation between ulcer size (p = .016), ABI (p = .044), TBI (p = .000), Adiponectin (p = .009), HbA1c (p = .033), and S. creatinine (p = .025) was significant with TcpO2 group.

CONCLUSIONS

The study concluded that there is a positive and significant correlation between TcPO2 group and ulcer outcome. There is a positive association between TcPO2 baseline and degree of ulcer healing with intact skin.

Strategies for free flap transfer and revascularisation with long-term outcome in the treatment of large diabetic foot lesions

OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND

To analyse the impact of ischaemia and revascularisation strategies on the long-term outcome of patients undergoing free flap transfer (FFT) for large diabetic foot lesions penetrating to the tendon, bone, or joint.

METHODS

Foot lesions of 63 patients with diabetes (median age 56 years; 70% male) were covered with a FTT in 1991-2003. Three groups were formed and followed until 2009: patients with a native in line artery to the ulcer area (n = 19; group A), patients with correctable ischaemia requiring vascular bypass (n = 32; group B), and patients with uncorrectable ischaemia lacking a recipient vessel in the ulcer area (n = 12; group C).

RESULTS

The respective 1, 5, and 10 year amputation free survival rates were 90%, 79%, and 63% in group A; 66%, 25%, and 18% in group B; and 50%, 42%, and 17%, in group C. The respective 1, 5, and 10 year leg salvage rates were 94%, 94%, and 87% in group A; 71%, 65%, and 65% in group B; and 50%, 50%, and 50% in group C. In 1 year, 43%, 45%, and 18% of the patients in groups A, B, and C, respectively, achieved stable epithelisation for at least 6 months. The overall amputation rate was associated with smoking (relative risk [RR] 3.09, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.8-5.3), heel ulceration (RR 2.25, 95% CI 1.1-4.7), nephropathy (RR 2.24, 95% CI 1.04-4.82), and an ulcer diameter of >10 cm (RR 2.08, 95% CI 1.03-4.48).

CONCLUSION

Despite diabetic comorbidities, complicated foot defects may be covered by means of an FFT with excellent long-term amputation free survival, provided that a patent native artery feeds the ulcer area. Ischaemic limbs may also be salvaged with combined FFT and vascular reconstruction in non-smokers and in the absence of very extensive heel ulcers. Occasionally, amputation is avoidable with FFT, even without the possibility of direct revascularisation.

A review of the surgical management of heel pressure ulcers in the 21st century

Heel ulceration, most frequently the result of prolonged pressure because of patient immobility, can range from the trivial to the life threatening. Whilst the vast majority of heel pressure ulcers (PUs) are superficial and involve the skin (stages I and II) or underlying fat (stage III), between 10% and 20% will involve deeper tissues, either muscle, tendon or bone (stage IV). These stage IV heel PUs represent a major health and economic burden and can be difficult to treat. The worst outcomes are seen in those with large ulcers, compromised peripheral arterial supply, osteomyelitis and associated comorbidities. Whilst the mainstay of management of stage I-III heel pressure ulceration centres on offloading and appropriate wound care, successful healing in stage IV PUs is often only possible with surgical intervention. Such intervention includes simple debridement, partial or total calcanectomy, arterial revascularisation in the context of coexisting peripheral vascular disease or using free tissue flaps. Amputation may be required for failed surgical intervention, or as a definitive first-line procedure in certain high-risk or poor prognosis patient groups. This review provides an overview of heel PUs, alongside a comprehensive literature review detailing the surgical interventions available when managing such patients.

Heel Ulcer and Blood Flow

A young female diabetic patient is reported, who presented with a double foot lesion. She presented with a first metatarsal head exposure concomitant with a heel wet gangrene. Magnetic resonance demonstrated osteomyelitis of the rear portion of the calcaneus. Transmetatarsal amputation was performed and a wide debridement was required to remove all gangrenous tissue from the heel wound. The pedal artery was palpable; the posterior tibial pulse was present, but weak.Transcutaneous oximetry (TcPO2) at the dorsum of the foot was TcPO2 = 56 mmHg despite significant oedema. Nevertheless, TcPO2 on the perilesional area of the heel ulcer (TcPO2 = 24mmHg) was suggestive for critical chronic ischemia. At angiographic examination, anterior tibial and peroneal arteries were patent, but the posterior tibial artery that showed severe stenosis then percutaneous angioplasty (PTA) was performed. Just the day after PTA, values of TcPO2 at the perilesional area of the heel ulcer increased to 41 mmHg. Heel osteomyelitis was subsequently treated by partial calcanectomy. The patient was discharged after a 21-day hospital stay. In the treatment of heel ulcers, it is clinically useful to use the angiosomic concept. The majority of the blood supply to the heel is provided by the posterior tibial artery, and only to a small extent by the posterior branch of peroneal artery. If the decrease in blood flow to this region is not detected, and direct flow based on the angiosome concept is not obtained, the healing of a heel ulcer may be delayed or impaired.

Diabetic heel ulcer in the Sudan: determinants of outcome

Heel ulceration, on average, costs 1.5 times more than metatarsal ulceration. The aim of this study was to analyze the determinant factors of healing in diabetic patients with heel ulcers and the late outcomes at Jabir Abu Eliz Diabetic Centre Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan. Data were collected prospectively for 96 of 100 diabetic patients presenting with heel ulcers at the Jabir Abu Eliz Diabetic Centre Khartoum from May 2003 to January 2005. Late outcome was assessed 3 years later (February 2008). Heeling was achieved in one half of the patients (n = 48). In the remaining 48 patients, 22 ended with major lower extremity amputation and 22 were still receiving wound care. A total of 8 patients died, 4 in each group, the healed and unhealed. The most significant determinants of healing using a logistic multivariate regression model, 95% confidence intervals, and odds ratios included a shorter duration of diabetes (p < .009), adequate lower limb perfusion (p < .043), and a superficial foot ulcer (p < .012). Three years later, of the 88 patients who could be traced, 78 were alive and 59 had healed ulcers (7 had died of unrelated causes and 3 of diabetic-related complications), and no additional lower extremity amputation was recorded. Mortality in the series was 18 patients, of whom 14 had undergone a previous lower extremity amputation. Superficial heel ulcers in diabetic patients with a short history of diabetes and with good limb circulation are more likely to heal within an average duration of 25 weeks. At 3 years of follow-up, 75% showed a favorable outcome for ulcer healing, and 22 patients underwent lower extremity amputation (25%), of whom 14 were dead within 3 years.

The role of foot collateral vessels on ulcer healing and limb salvage after successful endovascular and surgical distal procedures according to an angiosome model

OBJECTIVES

Analyze the influence of the collateral distal vessels on ischemic ulcer healing and limb salvage after successful distal procedures, according to an angiosome model.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of 76 ischemic ulcers revascularized by surgical (n = 41) and endovascular (n = 35) distal procedures. All interventions were primary procedures with single outflow vessel that remained patent during follow-up. Ulcers were classified according to an angiography angiosome study as ''direct revascularization'' ([DR] n = 45), ''indirect revascularization'' ([IR] n = 31), and IR ''through collaterals'' ([IRc] n = 18). Healing rates and limb salvage were compared according to the type of revascularization.

RESULTS

Ulcer healing rate at 12 months was higher in DR than in IR (92% vs 73%, P = .008) but similar to IRc (92% vs 85%). Limb salvage at 24 months was higher in DR than in IR (93% vs 72%, P = .02) but similar to IRc (93% vs 88%).

CONCLUSION

Ulcer blood flow restoration through collateral vessels may give similar results to those obtained through its specific source artery.

Surgical Management of Critical Limb Ischemia

At the present time, infrainguinal bypass using autogenous vein is the most effective and durable treatment for chronic limb ischemia caused by long-segment, diffuse, atherosclerotic occlusive disease. Quality of the vein conduit is the most important factor that determines operative success. Preoperative vein mapping is useful to identify an optimal vein conduit as well as to suggest vein segments that should not be explored due to occlusion, significant calcification, poor caliber, or sclerosis. Reversed, nonreversed, and in situ vein bypass grafts all perform equally well, and the choice of technique depends on anatomic considerations and surgeon preference. Bypass grafts originating from inflow sources distal to the common femoral artery may be appropriate in selected cases without compromising graft patency. All vein graft patients should be followed by postoperative, duplex-based graft surveillance. Antiplatelet therapy is indicated in all infrainguinal bypass patients; oral anticoagulation may be worthwhile in selected, high-risk patients, but hemorrhagic risks are significantly increased.

Healing of Transmetatarsal Amputation in the Diabetic Patient: Is Angiography Predictive?

Transmetatarsal amputation (TMA) is a durable reconstruction in the diabetic patient with limited forefoot gangrene. However, predicting TMA healing remains difficult. Our goals were to (1) determine the success rate of TMA and (2) identify factors predictive of TMA healing, in particular arterial foot anatomy. A retrospective review of all diabetic patients undergoing TMA was done. Blood supply to the foot was classified as mostly anterior (anterior tibial and/or dorsalis pedis artery), mostly posterior (posterior tibial or plantar arteries), or equally distributed (both systems patent or peroneal runoff). Foot vessels were assigned runoff scores from 0 to 3 according to Society for Vascular Surgery/International Society for Cardiovascular Surgery (SVS/ISCVS) criteria. Forty-four TMAs in 29 men and 12 women were reviewed. Revascularization was done in 35 cases. In nine cases (20%), no bypass was deemed necessary (n = 7) or feasible (n = 2). Blood flow to the foot was deemed mostly anterior in 16 cases, mostly posterior in 17 cases, and equally distributed in 11. The TMA was left open in 19 cases and closed with staples or sutures in the rest. Limb salvage was achieved in 30 cases (68%) at a median follow-up of 48 weeks. Three of the four patients on dialysis required leg amputation (75%) vs. 11 of the 40 (27%) nondialysis patients (p = 0.05). When the TMA was left open, leg amputation was more likely (58%) than when closed primarily (12%) (p < 0.01). No angiographic factors were predictive of limb salvage. The need for revascularization was not associated with limb loss, although both patients with no feasible bypass option required below-knee amputation. TMA healing can be expected in a majority of diabetic patients after adequate revascularization but cannot be predicted by angiographic findings. Efforts should be made to achieve primary wound closure.

Nonenhancing tissue on MR imaging of pedal infection: characterization of necrotic tissue and associated limitations for diagnosis of osteomyelitis and abscess

OBJECTIVE

We studied the frequency, location, extent, and signal characteristics of nonenhancing tissue in pedal infections and correlated those areas with surgical and histologic findings.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One hundred ten contrast-enhanced 1.5-T MR imaging foot examinations in 102 patients (28 women, 74 men; mean age, 59 years), 82% of whom had diabetes mellitus, were reviewed by two musculoskeletal radiologists for the presence of areas without recognizable enhancement. The number, size, location, signal characteristics, and enhancement ratio of nonenhancing regions were noted. MR imaging findings were compared with surgical and histology reports.

RESULTS

Nonenhancing regions were found in 27 feet (24.5%, 96.3% in diabetic patients, p = 0.032) at the forefoot (n = 16), toes (n = 8), and heel (n = 3). The mean size of the nonenhancing regions was 4.1 x 2.7 x 1.4 cm. Signal characteristics on T1-weighted images were isointense to muscle (n = 21, 77.8%), hypointense to muscle (n = 3, 11.1%), heterogeneous (n = 2, 7.4%), and isointense to fat (n = 1, 3.7%). On T2-weighted images, the signal was hyperintense to muscle (n = 12, 44.4%), heterogeneous to muscle (n = 9, 33.3%), equal to fluid (n = 3, 11.1%), and hypointense to muscle (n = 3, 11.1%). The mean signal increase after contrast administration was 3.57% for observer 1 and 2.68% for observer 2. Necrotic tissue was surgically confirmed in the nonenhancing areas in 26 feet (96.3%). Five abscesses and three cases of osteomyelitis were misdiagnosed on MR images because of lack of enhancement.

CONCLUSION

Nonenhancing areas are seen in one fourth of pedal infections, occur almost exclusively in diabetic patients, and represent necrotic tissue. Only contrast-enhanced images allow reliable recognition of these regions. Lack of enhancement in these areas can mask the presence of abscess and osteomyelitis.

Management of ischemic heel ulceration and gangrene: An evaluation of factors associated with successful healing

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of treatment of nonhealing heel ulcers and gangrene and to define those variables that are associated with success.

METHODS

A multi-institutional review was undertaken at four university or university-affiliated hospitals of all patients with wounds of the heel and arterial insufficiency, which was defined as absent pedal pulses and a decreased ankle/brachial index (ABI). Risk factors, hemodynamic parameters, and arteriographic findings were statistically analyzed to determine their effect on wound healing. Life-table analysis was used to assess graft patency and wound healing.

RESULTS

Ninety-one patients (57 men, 34 women) were treated for heel wounds that did not heal for 1 to 12 months (62% of nonhealing wounds, 3 months or longer). The mean preoperative ABI was 0.51, and 31% of wounds were infected. Of the patients, 55% had impaired renal function (Cr > 1.5), with 24% undergoing dialysis, 70% had diabetes, and 64% smoked cigarettes. Treatment was topical wound care for all patients and operative wound débridement in 50%. Infrainguinal bypass was performed for 81 patients, 4 had inflow procedures, 3 had superficial femoral artery percutaneous transluminal angioplasty, and 3 had primary below-knee amputation. Postoperatively, 85% of patients had in-line flow to the foot with at least a single patent vessel, 66% had a pedal pulse, and the mean ABI improved by 0.40, to 0.91. Follow-up ranged from 1 to 60 months (mean, 21 months), and 77 patients (85%) are currently alive. In 66 patients (73%), the wounds healed-all within 6 months (mean, 3 months). For 14 (16%) the wounds had not healed, and 11 patients (11%) underwent below-knee amputation. By life-table analysis, limb salvage was 86% at 3 years. During follow-up, 75 infrainguinal bypasses (91%) remained patent (3 secondarily) and 6 occluded, with primary assisted patency of 87% at 3 years. All wounds in patients with occluded grafts failed to heal. Variables found to be statistically significant in predicting healing included normal renal function (95% healed vs 55% nonhealed, P <.002), a palpable pedal pulse (85% healed vs 42%, P <.0015), a patent posterior tibial artery past the ankle (86% healed vs 57%, P <.02), and the number of patent tibial arteries after bypass to the ankle (P <.0001). Neither the ABI nor the presence of infection (defined as positive tissue cultures or the presence of osteomyelitis), diabetes, or other cardiovascular risk factors influenced the outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Complete wound healing of ischemic heel ulcers or gangrene may require up to 6 months, and short-term graft patency is of minimal benefit. Successful arterial reconstruction, especially a patent posterior tibial artery after bypass, is effective in treating most heel ulcers or gangrene. Patients with impaired renal function are at increased risk for failure of treatment, but their wounds may successfully heal and they should not be denied revascularization procedures.