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Mavuduru VA, Vadupu L, Ghosh KK, Chakrabortty S, Gulyás B, Padmanabhan P, Ball WB. Mitochondrial phospholipid transport: Role of contact sites and lipid transport proteins. Prog Lipid Res 2024; 94:101268. [PMID: 38195013 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2024.101268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
One of the major constituents of mitochondrial membranes is the phospholipids, which play a key role in maintaining the structure and the functions of the mitochondria. However, mitochondria do not synthesize most of the phospholipids in situ, necessitating the presence of phospholipid import pathways. Even for the phospholipids, which are synthesized within the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), the phospholipid precursors must be imported from outside the mitochondria. Therefore, the mitochondria heavily rely on the phospholipid transport pathways for its proper functioning. Since, mitochondria are not part of a vesicular trafficking network, the molecular mechanisms of how mitochondria receive its phospholipids remain a relevant question. One of the major ways that hydrophobic phospholipids can cross the aqueous barrier of inter or intraorganellar spaces is by apposing membranes, thereby decreasing the distance of transport, or by being sequestered by lipid transport proteins (LTPs). Therefore, with the discovery of LTPs and membrane contact sites (MCSs), we are beginning to understand the molecular mechanisms of phospholipid transport pathways in the mitochondria. In this review, we will present a brief overview of the recent findings on the molecular architecture and the importance of the MCSs, both the intraorganellar and interorganellar contact sites, in facilitating the mitochondrial phospholipid transport. In addition, we will also discuss the role of LTPs for trafficking phospholipids through the intermembrane space (IMS) of the mitochondria. Mechanistic insights into different phospholipid transport pathways of mitochondria could be exploited to vary the composition of membrane phospholipids and gain a better understanding of their precise role in membrane homeostasis and mitochondrial bioenergetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Aditya Mavuduru
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University AP Andhra Pradesh, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh 522240, India
| | - Lavanya Vadupu
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University AP Andhra Pradesh, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh 522240, India
| | - Krishna Kanta Ghosh
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 59 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 636921, Singapore
| | - Sabyasachi Chakrabortty
- Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University AP Andhra Pradesh, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh 522502, India
| | - Balázs Gulyás
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 59 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 636921, Singapore; Cognitive Neuroimaging Centre, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 59 Nanyang Drive, 636921, Singapore; Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm 17176, Sweden
| | - Parasuraman Padmanabhan
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 59 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 636921, Singapore; Cognitive Neuroimaging Centre, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 59 Nanyang Drive, 636921, Singapore.
| | - Writoban Basu Ball
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University AP Andhra Pradesh, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh 522240, India.
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Jahn H, Bartoš L, Dearden GI, Dittman JS, Holthuis JCM, Vácha R, Menon AK. Phospholipids are imported into mitochondria by VDAC, a dimeric beta barrel scramblase. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8115. [PMID: 38065946 PMCID: PMC10709637 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43570-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are double-membrane-bounded organelles that depend critically on phospholipids supplied by the endoplasmic reticulum. These lipids must cross the outer membrane to support mitochondrial function, but how they do this is unclear. We identify the Voltage Dependent Anion Channel (VDAC), an abundant outer membrane protein, as a scramblase-type lipid transporter that catalyzes lipid entry. On reconstitution into membrane vesicles, dimers of human VDAC1 and VDAC2 catalyze rapid transbilayer translocation of phospholipids by a mechanism that is unrelated to their channel activity. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations of VDAC1 reveal that lipid scrambling occurs at a specific dimer interface where polar residues induce large water defects and bilayer thinning. The rate of phospholipid import into yeast mitochondria is an order of magnitude lower in the absence of VDAC homologs, indicating that VDACs provide the main pathway for lipid entry. Thus, VDAC isoforms, members of a superfamily of beta barrel proteins, moonlight as a class of phospholipid scramblases - distinct from alpha-helical scramblase proteins - that act to import lipids into mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helene Jahn
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Ladislav Bartoš
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 62500, Brno, Czech Republic
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 62500, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Grace I Dearden
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Jeremy S Dittman
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Joost C M Holthuis
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, 49076, Germany
| | - Robert Vácha
- CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 62500, Brno, Czech Republic.
- National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 62500, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Anant K Menon
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
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3
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Wang Y, Kinoshita T. The role of lipid scramblases in regulating lipid distributions at cellular membranes. Biochem Soc Trans 2023; 51:1857-1869. [PMID: 37767549 DOI: 10.1042/bst20221455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids and cholesterol assemble into lipid bilayers that form the scaffold of cellular membranes, in which proteins are embedded. Membrane composition and membrane protein profiles differ between plasma and intracellular membranes and between the two leaflets of a membrane. Lipid distributions between two leaflets are mediated by lipid translocases, including flippases and scramblases. Flippases use ATP to catalyze the inward movement of specific lipids between leaflets. In contrast, bidirectional flip-flop movements of lipids across the membrane are mediated by scramblases in an ATP-independent manner. Scramblases have been implicated in disrupting the lipid asymmetry of the plasma membrane, protein glycosylation, autophagosome biogenesis, lipoprotein secretion, lipid droplet formation and communications between organelles. Although scramblases in plasma membranes were identified over 10 years ago, most progress about scramblases localized in intracellular membranes has been made in the last few years. Herein, we review the role of scramblases in regulating lipid distributions in cellular membranes, focusing primarily on intracellular membrane-localized scramblases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yicheng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- Key Laboratory of Biopharmaceutical Preparation and Delivery, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Taroh Kinoshita
- Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
- Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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4
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Abstract
Rapid flip-flop of phospholipids across the two leaflets of biological membranes is crucial for many aspects of cellular life. The transport proteins that facilitate this process are classified as pump-like flippases and floppases and channel-like scramblases. Unexpectedly, Class A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), a large class of signaling proteins exemplified by the visual receptor rhodopsin and its apoprotein opsin, are constitutively active as scramblases in vitro. In liposomes, opsin scrambles lipids at a unitary rate of >100,000 per second. Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations of opsin in a lipid membrane reveal conformational transitions that expose a polar groove between transmembrane helices 6 and 7. This groove enables transbilayer lipid movement, conceptualized as the swiping of a credit card (lipid) through a card reader (GPCR). Conformational changes that facilitate scrambling are distinct from those associated with GPCR signaling. In this review, we discuss the physiological significance of GPCR scramblase activity and the modes of its regulation in cells. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biophysics, Volume 51 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Khelashvili
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA; .,Institute of Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| | - Anant K Menon
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA;
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5
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Acoba MG, Senoo N, Claypool SM. Phospholipid ebb and flow makes mitochondria go. J Cell Biol 2021; 219:151918. [PMID: 32614384 PMCID: PMC7401802 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202003131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria, so much more than just being energy factories, also have the capacity to synthesize macromolecules including phospholipids, particularly cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Phospholipids are vital constituents of mitochondrial membranes, impacting the plethora of functions performed by this organelle. Hence, the orchestrated movement of phospholipids to and from the mitochondrion is essential for cellular integrity. In this review, we capture recent advances in the field of mitochondrial phospholipid biosynthesis and trafficking, highlighting the significance of interorganellar communication, intramitochondrial contact sites, and lipid transfer proteins in maintaining membrane homeostasis. We then discuss the physiological functions of CL and PE, specifically how they associate with protein complexes in mitochondrial membranes to support bioenergetics and maintain mitochondrial architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Grace Acoba
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Nanami Senoo
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Steven M Claypool
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
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6
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Dragone R, Grasso G, Frazzoli C. Amperometric Cytosensor for Studying Mitochondrial Interferences Induced by Plasticizers Bisphenol B and Bisphenol A. Molecules 2020; 25:E5185. [PMID: 33171786 PMCID: PMC7664631 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25215185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The widespread presence of plasticizers Bisphenol B (BPB) and Bisphenol A (BPA) in food contact materials, medical equipment, and common household products is a toxicological risk factor for health due to internal exposure after environmental dietary exposure. This work describes the use of an amperometric cytosensor (i.e., a whole cell-based amperometric biosensoristic device) for studying mitochondrial interferences of BPA and BPB (5-100 µg/mL) in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae model following long-term (24 h) exposure (acute toxicity). Percentage interference (%ρ) on yeast aerobic mitochondrial catabolism was calculated after comparison of aerobic respiration of exposed and control S. cerevisiae cell suspensions. Results suggested the hypothesis of a dose-dependent co-action of two mechanisms, namely uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and oxidative stress. These mechanisms respectively matched with opposite effects of hyperstimulation and inhibition of cellular respiration. While uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and oxidative stress have been previously described as separate effects from in vitro BPA exposure using other biochemical endpoints and biological systems, effects of BPB on cellular aerobic respiration are here reported for the first time. Results highlighted a similar hyperstimulation effect after exposure to 5 µg/mL BPA and BPB. About a 2-fold higher cellular respiration inhibition potency was observed after exposures to 15, 30, and 100 µg/mL BPB compared to BPA. 2,4-Dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) was used as model uncoupling agent. A time-dependent mechanism of mitochondrial interference was also highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Dragone
- Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, ‘Sapienza’ Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Gerardo Grasso
- Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, ‘Sapienza’ Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Chiara Frazzoli
- Dipartimento Malattie Cardiovascolari, Dismetaboliche e dell’Invecchiamento, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Via Giano della Bella, 34, 00162 Rome, Italy;
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7
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Intramitochondrial phospholipid trafficking. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2016; 1862:81-89. [PMID: 27542541 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2016.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial functions and architecture rely on a defined lipid composition of their outer and inner membranes, which are characterized by a high content of non-bilayer phospholipids such as cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Mitochondrial membrane lipids are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or within mitochondria from ER-derived precursor lipids, are asymmetrically distributed within mitochondria and can relocate in response to cellular stress. Maintenance of lipid homeostasis thus requires multiple lipid transport processes to be orchestrated within mitochondria. Recent findings identified members of the Ups/PRELI family as specific lipid transfer proteins in mitochondria that shuttle phospholipids between mitochondrial membranes. They cooperate with membrane organizing proteins that preserve the spatial organization of mitochondrial membranes and the formation of membrane contact sites, unravelling an intimate crosstalk of membrane lipid transport and homeostasis with the structural organization of mitochondria. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Lipids of Mitochondria edited by Guenther Daum.
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8
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Pomorski TG, Menon AK. Lipid somersaults: Uncovering the mechanisms of protein-mediated lipid flipping. Prog Lipid Res 2016; 64:69-84. [PMID: 27528189 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Membrane lipids diffuse rapidly in the plane of the membrane but their ability to flip spontaneously across a membrane bilayer is hampered by a significant energy barrier. Thus spontaneous flip-flop of polar lipids across membranes is very slow, even though it must occur rapidly to support diverse aspects of cellular life. Here we discuss the mechanisms by which rapid flip-flop occurs, and what role lipid flipping plays in membrane homeostasis and cell growth. We focus on conceptual aspects, highlighting mechanistic insights from biochemical and in silico experiments, and the recent, ground-breaking identification of a number of lipid scramblases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Günther Pomorski
- Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Molecular Biochemistry, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätstrasse 150, D-44780 Bochum, Germany; Centre for Membrane Pumps in Cells and Disease-PUMPKIN, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| | - Anant K Menon
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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9
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Diuron in water: functional toxicity and intracellular detoxification patterns of active concentrations assayed in tandem by a yeast-based probe. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2015; 12:3731-40. [PMID: 25837349 PMCID: PMC4410212 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120403731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A study on the acute and chronic effects of the herbicide diuron was carried out. The test, basing on a yeast cell probe, investigated the interference with cellular catabolism and possible self-detoxification capacity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Aerobic respiration was taken as the toxicological end-point. Percentage interference (%r) with cellular respiration was measured in water by increased dissolved O2 concentration (ppm) after exposure to different doses. Interference was calculated through the comparison of respiratory activity of exposed and non-exposed cells. Short-term and long-term (6 and 24 h respectively) exposures were also considered. The test for short-term exposure gave positive %r values except that for 10-6 M (11.11%, 11.76%, 13.33% and 0% for 10-10 M, 10-8 M, 10-7 M and 10-6 M respectively). In the case of long-term exposure the test showed positive %r values, but less effect than short-term exposure until 10-8 M and much higher at 10-6 M (7.41%, 8.82%, 11.76% and 6.06% for 10-10 M, 10-8 M, 10-7 M and 10-6 M respectively). The findings of aerobic respiration as toxicological end-point were in agreement with known mechanisms of toxicity and intracellular detoxification for both the doses and exposure times employed.
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10
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Tatsuta T, Scharwey M, Langer T. Mitochondrial lipid trafficking. Trends Cell Biol 2014; 24:44-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2013.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Revised: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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11
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Baile MG, Lu YW, Claypool SM. The topology and regulation of cardiolipin biosynthesis and remodeling in yeast. Chem Phys Lipids 2013; 179:25-31. [PMID: 24184646 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2013.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The signature mitochondrial phospholipid cardiolipin plays an important role in mitochondrial function, and alterations in cardiolipin metabolism are associated with human disease. Topologically, cardiolipin biosynthesis and remodeling are complex. Precursor phospholipids must be transported from the ER, across the mitochondrial outer membrane to the matrix-facing leaflet of the inner membrane, where cardiolipin biosynthesis commences. Post-synthesis, cardiolipin undergoes acyl chain remodeling, requiring additional trafficking steps, before it achieves its final distribution within both mitochondrial membranes. This process is regulated at several points via multiple independent mechanisms. Here, we review the regulation and topology of cardiolipin biosynthesis and remodeling in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Although cardiolipin metabolism is more complicated in mammals, yeast have been an invaluable model for dissecting the steps required for this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew G Baile
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Ya-Wen Lu
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Steven M Claypool
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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12
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Flis VV, Daum G. Lipid transport between the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2013; 5:5/6/a013235. [PMID: 23732475 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a013235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria are partially autonomous organelles that depend on the import of certain proteins and lipids to maintain cell survival and membrane formation. Although phosphatidylglycerol, cardiolipin, and phosphatidylethanolamine are synthesized by mitochondrial enzymes, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine, and sterols need to be imported from other organelles. The origin of most lipids imported into mitochondria is the endoplasmic reticulum, which requires interaction of these two subcellular compartments. Recently, protein complexes that are involved in membrane contact between endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria were identified, but their role in lipid transport is still unclear. In the present review, we describe components involved in lipid translocation between the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria and discuss functional as well as regulatory aspects that are important for lipid homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vid V Flis
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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13
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Sugiki T, Takahashi H, Nagasu M, Hanada K, Shimada I. Real-time assay method of lipid extraction activity. Anal Biochem 2010; 399:162-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2009.12.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2009] [Revised: 12/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/18/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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14
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Gross J, Bhattacharya D. Mitochondrial and plastid evolution in eukaryotes: an outsiders' perspective. Nat Rev Genet 2009; 10:495-505. [PMID: 19506574 DOI: 10.1038/nrg2610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The eukaryotic organelles mitochondrion and plastid originated from eubacterial endosymbionts. Here we propose that, in both cases, prokaryote-to-organelle conversion was driven by the internalization of host-encoded factors progressing from the outer membrane of the endosymbionts towards the intermembrane space, inner membrane and finally the organelle interior. This was made possible by an outside-to-inside establishment in the endosymbionts of host-controlled protein-sorting components, which enabled the gradual integration of organelle functions into the nuclear genome. Such a convergent trajectory for mitochondrion and plastid establishment suggests a novel paradigm for organelle evolution that affects theories of eukaryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeferson Gross
- Department of Biology, Roy J. Carver Center for Comparative Genomics, University of Iowa, 446 Biology Building, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
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15
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de Kroon AIPM. Metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and its implications for lipid acyl chain composition in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2006; 1771:343-52. [PMID: 17010666 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2006.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2006] [Revised: 07/28/2006] [Accepted: 07/31/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is a very abundant membrane lipid in most eukaryotes including the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Consequently, the molecular species profile of PC, i.e. the ensemble of PC molecules with acyl chains differing in number of carbon atoms and double bonds, is important in determining the physical properties of eukaryotic membranes, and should be tightly regulated. In this review current insights in the contributions of biosynthesis, turnover, and remodeling by acyl chain exchange to the maintenance of PC homeostasis at the level of the molecular species in yeast are summarized. In addition, the phospholipid class-specific changes in membrane acyl chain composition induced by PC depletion are discussed, which identify PC as key player in a novel regulatory mechanism balancing the proportions of bilayer and non-bilayer lipids in yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton I P M de Kroon
- Department Biochemistry of Membranes, Bijvoet Institute and Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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16
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Blagović B, Rupcić J, Mesarić M, Marić V. Lipid analysis of the plasma membrane and mitochondria of brewer's yeast. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2005; 50:24-30. [PMID: 15954530 DOI: 10.1007/bf02931290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The plasma membrane and mitochondria of bottom fermenting brewer's yeast obtained as a by-product of industrial beer production were isolated and the lipid fraction was analyzed. The phospholipid content accounted for 78 mg/g protein in the plasma membrane and 59 mg/g protein in the mitochondria. Major phospholipids in both preparations were phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine but their proportions differed significantly. In the plasma membrane phosphatidylinositol, and in the mitochondria phosphatidylcholine were present in the highest concentration (37 and 30%, respectively). The main classes of neutral lipids (triacylglycerols, ergosterol, squalene and steryl esters) were twice more abundant in the plasma membrane than in the mitochondria (61 and 33 mg/g protein, respectively). A characteristic of the neutral lipid composition of both organelles was the low content of ergosterol (12 and 7 mg/g protein, respectively) and a high content of squalene (25 and 22 mg/g protein). The main feature of the fatty acid composition of both organelles was the preponderance of saturated fatty acids (78 and 79%, respectively), among which palmitic acid was the principal one. The most expressed characteristics of lipid fractions of the analyzed plasma membranes and mitochondria, high concentration of squalene and preponderance of saturated fatty acids are the consequences of anaerobic growth conditions. The lack of oxygen had possibly the strongest effect on the lipid composition of the plasma membranes and mitochondria of bottom fermenting brewer's yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Blagović
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia.
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17
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Bürgermeister M, Birner-Grünberger R, Heyn M, Daum G. Contribution of different biosynthetic pathways to species selectivity of aminoglycerophospholipids assembled into mitochondrial membranes of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2004; 1686:148-60. [PMID: 15522831 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2004.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2004] [Revised: 09/08/2004] [Accepted: 09/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, three pathways lead to the formation of cellular phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), namely the mitochondrial conversion of phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) to PtdEtn catalyzed by phosphatidylserine decarboxylase 1 (Psd1p), the equivalent reaction catalyzed by phosphatidylserine decarboxylase 2 (Psd2p) in the Golgi, and the CDP-ethanolamine branch of the so-called Kennedy pathway which is located to the microsomal fraction. To investigate the contributions of these three pathways to the cellular pattern of PtdEtn species (fatty acid composition) we subjected lipids of wild-type and yeast mutant strains with distinct defects in the respective pathways to mass spectrometric analysis. We also analyzed species of PtdSer and phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) of these strains because formation of the three aminoglycerophospholipids is linked through their biosynthetic route. We demonstrate that all three pathways involved in PtdEtn synthesis exhibit a preference for the formation of C34:2 and C32:2 species resulting in a high degree of unsaturation in total cellular PtdEtn. In PtdSer, the ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids is much lower than in PtdEtn, suggesting a high species selectivity of PtdSer decarboxylases. Finally, PtdCho is characterized by its higher ratio of C16 to C18 fatty acids compared to PtdSer and PtdEtn. In contrast to biosynthetic steps, import of all three aminoglycerophospholipids into mitochondria of wild-type and mutant cells is not highly specific with respect to species transported. Thus, the species pattern of aminoglycerophospholipids in mitochondria is mainly the result of enzyme specificities, but not of translocation processes involved. Our results support a model that suggests equilibrium transport of aminoglycerophospholipids between mitochondria and microsomes based on membrane contact between the two compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bürgermeister
- Institut für Biochemie, Technische Universität Graz, Petersgasse 12/2, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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Birner R, Daum G. Biogenesis and cellular dynamics of aminoglycerophospholipids. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 2003; 225:273-323. [PMID: 12696595 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(05)25007-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Aminoglycerophospholipids phosphatidylserine (PtdSer), phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), and phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) comprise about 80% of total cellular phospholipids in most cell types. While the major function of PtdCho in eukaryotes and PtdEtn in prokaryotes is that of bulk membrane lipids, PtdSer is a minor component and appears to play a more specialized role in the plasma membrane of eukaryotes, e.g., in cell recognition processes. All three aminoglycerophospholipid classes are essential in mammals, whereas prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes such as yeast appear to be more flexible regarding their aminoglycerophospholipid requirement. Since different subcellular compartments of eukaryotes, namely the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, contribute to the biosynthetic sequence of aminoglycerophospholipid formation, intracellular transport, sorting, and specific function of these lipids in different organelles are of special interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Birner
- Institut für Biochemie, Technische Universität Graz, Petersgasse 12/2, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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de Kroon AIPM, Koorengevel MC, Vromans TAM, de Kruijff B. Continuous equilibration of phosphatidylcholine and its precursors between endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria in yeast. Mol Biol Cell 2003; 14:2142-50. [PMID: 12802081 PMCID: PMC165103 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e02-08-0460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In Saccharomyces cerevisiae phosphatidylcholine (PC) is synthesized in the ER and transported to mitochondria via an unknown mechanism. The transport of PC synthesized by the triple methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine was investigated by pulsing yeast spheroplasts with l-[methyl-3H]methionine, followed by a chase with unlabeled methionine and subcellular fractionation. During the pulse, increasing amounts of PC and its mono- and dimethylated precursors (PMME and PDME, respectively) appear in similar proportions in both microsomes and mitochondria, with the extent of incorporation in microsomes being twice that in mitochondria. During the chase, the [3H]-methyl label from the precursors accumulates into PC with similar kinetics in both organelles. The results demonstrate that transport of methylated phospholipids from ER to mitochondria is 1) coupled to synthesis, 2) not selective for PC, 3) at least as fast as the fastest step in the methylation of PE, and 4) bidirectional for PMME and PDME. The interorganellar equilibration of methylated phospholipids was reconstituted in vitro and did not depend on ongoing methylation, cytosolic factors, ATP, and energization of the mitochondria, although energization could accelerate the reaction. The exchange of methylated phospholipids was reduced after pretreating both microsomes and mitochondria with trypsin, indicating the involvement of membrane proteins from both organelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton I P M de Kroon
- Department Biochemistry of Membranes, Centre for Biomembranes and Lipid Enzymology, Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
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Boumann HA, Damen MJA, Versluis C, Heck AJR, de Kruijff B, de Kroon AIPM. The two biosynthetic routes leading to phosphatidylcholine in yeast produce different sets of molecular species. Evidence for lipid remodeling. Biochemistry 2003; 42:3054-9. [PMID: 12627972 DOI: 10.1021/bi026801r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Phosphatidylcholine (PC), a major lipid class in the membranes of eukaryotes, is synthesized either via the triple methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) or via the CDP-choline route. To investigate whether the two biosynthetic routes contribute differently to the steady-state profile of PC species, i.e., PC molecules with specific acyl chain compositions, the pools of newly synthesized PC species were monitored by labeling Saccharomyces cerevisiae with deuterated precursors of the two routes, (methyl-D3)-methionine and (D13)-choline, respectively. Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) revealed that the two PC biosynthetic pathways yield different sets of PC species, with the CDP-choline route contributing most to the molecular diversity. Moreover, yeast was shown to be capable of remodeling PC by acyl chain exchange at the sn-1 position of the glycerol backbone. Remodeling was found to be required to generate the steady-state species distribution of PC. This is the first study demonstrating a functional difference between the two biosynthetic routes in yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry A Boumann
- Department of Biochemistry of Membranes, Centre for Biomembranes and Lipid Enzymology, Institute of Biomembranes, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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22
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Kol MA, van Laak ANC, Rijkers DTS, Killian JA, de Kroon AIPM, de Kruijff B. Phospholipid flop induced by transmembrane peptides in model membranes is modulated by lipid composition. Biochemistry 2003; 42:231-7. [PMID: 12515559 DOI: 10.1021/bi0268403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Since phospholipid synthesis is generally confined to one leaflet of a membrane, membrane growth requires phospholipid translocation (flip-flop). It is generally assumed that this process is protein-mediated; however, the mechanism of flip-flop remains elusive. Previously, we have demonstrated flop of 2-[6-[(7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)amino]caproyl] (C6NBD) phospholipids, induced by the presence of membrane-spanning peptides in vesicles composed of an Escherichia coli phospholipid extract, supporting the hypothesis that the presence of transmembrane stretches of proteins in the bilayer is sufficient to allow phospholipid flip-flop in the inner membrane of E. coli [Kol et al. (2001) Biochemistry 40, 10500]. Here, we investigated whether the specific phospholipid composition of E. coli is a prerequisite for transmembrane helix-induced flop of phospholipids. This was tested by determining the amount of C6NBD-phospholipid that was translocated from the inner leaflet to the outer leaflet of a model membrane in time, using a dithionite reduction assay. The transmembrane peptides GWWL(AL)8WWA (WALP23) and GKKL(AL)8KKA (KALP23) induced phospholipid flop in model membranes composed of various lipid mixtures. The rate of peptide-induced flop was found to decrease with increasing dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) content of vesicles composed of DOPE and dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC), and the rate of KALP23-induced flop was shown to be stimulated by higher dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol (DOPG) content in model membranes composed of DOPG and DOPC. Furthermore, the incorporation of cholesterol had an inhibitory effect on peptide-induced flop. Finally, flop efficiency was strongly dependent on the phospholipid headgroup of the NBD-phospholipid analogue. Possible implications for transmembrane helix-induced flop in biomembranes in general are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthijs A Kol
- Department of Biochemistry of Membranes, Centre for Biomembranes and Lipid Enzymology, Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Gummadi SN, Menon AK. Transbilayer movement of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine in proteoliposomes reconstituted from detergent extracts of endoplasmic reticulum. Kinetics of transbilayer transport mediated by a single flippase and identification of protein fractions enriched in flippase activity. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:25337-43. [PMID: 12000768 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m203809200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipid translocation (flip-flop) across membrane bilayers is typically assessed via assays utilizing partially water-soluble phospholipid analogs as transport reporters. These assays have been used in previous work to show that phospholipid translocation in biogenic (self-synthesizing) membranes such as the endoplasmic reticulum is facilitated by specific membrane proteins (flippases). To extend these studies to natural phospholipids while providing a framework to guide the purification of a flippase, we now describe an assay to measure the transbilayer translocation of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, a membrane-embedded phospholipid, in proteoliposomes generated from detergent-solubilized rat liver endoplasmic reticulum. Translocation was assayed using phospholipase A(2) under conditions where the vesicles were determined to be intact. Phospholipase A(2) rapidly hydrolyzed phospholipids in the outer leaflet of liposomes and proteoliposomes with a half-time of approximately 0.1 min. However, for flippase-containing proteoliposomes, the initial rapid hydrolysis phase was followed by a slower phase reflecting flippase-mediated translocation of phospholipids from the inner to the outer leaflet. The amplitude of the slow phase was decreased in trypsin-treated proteoliposomes. The kinetic characteristics of the slow phase were used to assess the rate of transbilayer equilibration of phospholipids. For 250-nm diameter vesicles containing a single flippase, the half-time was 3.3 min. Proportionate reductions in equilibration half-time were observed for preparations with a higher average number of flippases/vesicle. Preliminary purification steps indicated that flippase activity could be enriched approximately 15-fold by sequential adsorption of the detergent extract onto anion and cation exchange resins.
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Janssen MJ, Koorengevel MC, de Kruijff B, de Kroon AI. The phosphatidylcholine to phosphatidylethanolamine ratio of Saccharomyces cerevisiae varies with the growth phase. Yeast 2000; 16:641-50. [PMID: 10806426 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0061(200005)16:7<641::aid-yea578>3.0.co;2-u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
This study compares the effect of the growth phase on the phospholipid composition and the activity of several phospholipid biosynthetic enzymes in a wild-type yeast grown in fermentable (glucose) and non-fermentable (lactate) semi-synthetic and complete synthetic media. Several distinct differences as well as similarities were found. The cellular phosphatidylcholine: phosphatidylethanolamine (PC:PE) ratio was found to vary with the growth phase, with increases in PC levels at the expense of PE during the transition to stationary phase. The variation was most pronounced in semi-synthetic lactate medium, which is routinely used for the isolation of mitochondria, where the PC:PE ratio changed from 0.9 to 2.2 during this transition. Similar growth phase-dependent changes in PC and PE content were observed in isolated organelles such as mitochondria, mitochondria-associated membranes and microsomes. Phosphatidylinositol (PI) levels were much higher in cells grown on lactate compared to cells grown on glucose (20% vs. 5-10%). Irrespective of the medium, PI levels increased upon entering stationary phase. The activities of the phospholipid biosynthetic enzymes phosphatidylserine synthase and the phospholipid-N-methyltransferases were found to be maximal at the end of logarithmic growth and to decrease upon entering stationary phase in all media. Cells grown on lactate displayed a significantly higher phospholipid:protein ratio than cells grown on glucose. The results are discussed in terms of regulation of phospholipid biosynthesis and membrane biogenesis in response to growth phase and carbon source.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Janssen
- Department Biochemistry of Membranes, Centre for Biomembranes and Lipid Enzymology, Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, NL-3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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