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da Silva Junior FC, Felipe MBMC, Castro DEFD, Araújo SCDS, Sisenando HCN, Batistuzzo de Medeiros SR. A look beyond the priority: A systematic review of the genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic endpoints of non-priority PAHs. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 278:116838. [PMID: 33714059 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Knowledge of the toxic potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has increased over time. Much of this knowledge is about the 16 United States - Environmental Protection Agency (US - EPA) priority PAHs; however, there are other US - EPA non-priority PAHs in the environment, whose toxic potential is underestimated. We conducted a systematic review of in vitro, in vivo, and in silico studies to assess the genotoxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity of 13 US - EPA non-priority parental PAHs present in the environment. Electronic databases, such as Science Direct, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, were used to search for research with selected terms without time restrictions. After analysis, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol, 249 articles, published between 1946 and 2020, were selected and the quality assessment of these studies was performed. The results showed that 5-methylchrysene (5-MC), 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (7,12-DMBA), cyclopenta[cd]pyrene (CPP), and dibenzo[al]pyrene (Db[al]P) were the most studied PAHs. Moreover, 5-MC, 7,12-DMBA, benz[j]aceanthrylene (B[j]A), CPP, anthanthrene (ANT), dibenzo[ae]pyrene (Db[ae]P), and Db[al]P have been reported to cause mutagenic effects and have been being associated with a risk of carcinogenicity. Retene (RET) and benzo[c]fluorene (B[c]F), the least studied compounds, showed evidence of a strong influence on the mutagenicity and carcinogenicity endpoints. Overall, this systematic review provided evidence of the genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic endpoints of US - EPA non-priority PAHs. However, further studies are needed to improve the future protocols of environmental analysis and risk assessment in severely exposed populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Carlos da Silva Junior
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Biosciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil; Graduate Program in Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Biosciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | | | - Denis Elvis Farias de Castro
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Biosciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil; Graduate Program in Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Biosciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Sinara Carla da Silva Araújo
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Biosciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil; Graduate Program in Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Biosciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Herbert Costa Nóbrega Sisenando
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Biosciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil; Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Silvia Regina Batistuzzo de Medeiros
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Biosciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil; Graduate Program in Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Biosciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil.
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2
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Hallberg E. Metabolism and toxicity of xenobiotics in the adrenal cortex, with particular reference to 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene. JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMICAL TOXICOLOGY 1990; 5:71-90. [PMID: 2126560 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.2570050202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The adrenal cortex contains high amounts of detoxifying enzymes, as well as generators and protectors of reactive oxygen species. The high content of cytochrome P-450 enzymes in the adrenal cortex together with its remarkable tendency to accumulate hydrophobic substances probably contributes to the extraordinary vulnerability of the gland to a number of xenobiotics. The best studied adrenocorticolytic compounds are the potent carcinogen 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) and its liver metabolite 7-hydroxymethyl-12-methylbenz(a)anthracene (7-OHM-12-MBA). Adrenocorticolysis generated by these agents in vivo as well as in vitro demonstrates high regioselective requirements and is strongly influenced by the presence of ACTH, steroids, cytochrome P-450 inhibitors and antioxidants. Furthermore, 7-OHM-12-MBA has been demonstrated to uniquely generate selective and massive oxidation of mitochondrial glutathione in cultured rat adrenal cells. The DMBA-induced adrenocorticolysis is thoroughly discussed in this review with particular emphasis on the metabolism of DMBA and the influence of various effectors. A working hypothesis involving a possible peroxidative mechanism is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Hallberg
- Department of Biochemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, University of Stockholm, Sweden
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Risley MS, Miller A, Bumcrot DA. In vitro analysis of germ cell genotoxicity in testis explant cultures: spermatid micronucleus assays. Mutat Res 1988; 203:125-33. [PMID: 3127703 DOI: 10.1016/0165-1161(88)90027-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Explant cultures of testes from the frog Xenopus laevis have been employed to evaluate the application of testis culture to the routine screening of potential germ cell genotoxicants. Testis explants were incubated with varied concentrations of 3 model mutagens (9,10-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene, cyclophosphamide, adriamycin) and solvent controls. Round spermatids were isolated from testes cultured 2-30 days after exposure to each mutagen. The spermatids were then stained with Hoechst 33258 and spermatid micronuclei were scored with a fluorescence microscope. Acute exposure of testes to each mutagen resulted in a dose-dependent increase in spermatid micronuclei that was stage specific and proportional to the length of the exposure period. The assay sensitively detected clastogenic effects by 10(-7) M adriamycin (4-h exposure period) and 10(-6) M cyclophosphamide and dimethylbenzanthracene (24-h exposure). The results demonstrate the feasibility of in vitro approaches to the routine screening and investigation of genotoxicity in the premeiotic S through meiotic division stages of vertebrate spermatogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Risley
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Cornell University Medical College, New York, NY 10021
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Greenstock C. Free-Radical Processes in Radiation and Chemical Carcinogenesis. ADVANCES IN RADIATION BIOLOGY 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-035411-5.50012-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Lähdetie J. Micronuclei induced during meiosis by ethyl methanesulfonate, cyclophosphamide and dimethylbenzanthracene in male rats. Mutat Res 1983; 120:257-60. [PMID: 6406884 DOI: 10.1016/0165-7992(83)90098-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Heidelberger C, Freeman AE, Pienta RJ, Sivak A, Bertram JS, Casto BC, Dunkel VC, Francis MW, Kakunaga T, Little JB, Schechtman LM. Cell transformation by chemical agents--a review and analysis of the literature. A report of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Gene-Tox Program. Mutat Res 1983; 114:283-385. [PMID: 6339891 DOI: 10.1016/0165-1110(83)90036-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The literature on cell transformation by chemical carcinogens has been critically reviewed. This subject is highly relevant to carcinogenesis in vivo, because the phenotypic changes that are collectively referred to as cell transformation usually involve the acquisition of tumorigenicity on inoculation into suitable rodent hosts. The systems chosen for review fall into 3 categories: cell strains (cells with a limited lifespan); cell lines (cells with an unlimited lifespan); and oncogenic viral-chemical interactions involving cells (Fischer rat embryo cells expressing an endogenous retrovirus, mouse embryo cells expressing the AKR leukemia virus, chemical enhancement of a simian adenovirus, SA7 transformation of Syrian hamster or rat embryo cells). Of the entire literature reviewed, 117 papers have been accepted for data abstraction by pre-defined criteria; these include 41 references to cell strains, 40 in cell lines, and 38 in viral-chemical interactions including cells. Because different systems have been reviewed, it would be meaningless to group all the compounds. The overall summary of the systems is as follows (many compounds have been tested in more than one system and, hence, are duplicated in these totals). (Chart: see text) In general, there is a reasonably good correlation between the results of the cell transformation systems and in vivo carcinogenesis. However, the many deficiencies of the EPA Merged Carcinogen List preclude definitive comparisons. Moreover, a number of 'false negatives' were obtained in systems that did not employ external metabolic activation. Further validation of all systems is required, but it seems very probable that several cell transformation systems will become valuable in assaying (with reasonable time and cost) the carcinogenic potential of environmental chemicals.
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Arciszewska LK, Martin SE, Milner JA. The antimutagenic effect of selenium on 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene and metabolites in the amesSalmonella/microsome system. Biol Trace Elem Res 1982; 4:259-67. [PMID: 24272133 DOI: 10.1007/bf02786540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/1982] [Accepted: 07/06/1982] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The antimutagenic effect of selenium as sodium selenite, sodium selenate, selenium dioxide, and seleno-methionine was studied in the AmesSalmonella/microsome mutagenicity test using 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) and some of its metabolites. Selenium (20 ppm) as sodium selenite reduced the number of histidine revertants on plates containing up to 100 μg DMBA/plate. Increasing concentrations of selenium as sodium selenite, sodium selenate, and selenium dioxide up to 40 ppm Se progressively decreased the number of revertants caused by 50 μg DMBA. DMBA and its metabolites 7-hydroxymethyl-12-methylbenz(a)anthracene, 12-hydroxymethyl-7-methylbenz(a)anthracene, and 3-hydroxy-7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene were mutagenic forSalmonella typhimurium TA100 in the presence of an S-9 mixture. Selenium supplementation as Na2SeO3 reduced the number of revertants induced by these metabolites to background levels. The antimutagenic effect of inorganic selenium compounds cannot be explained by toxicity of selenium as determined by viability tests withSalmonella typhimurium TA100. Selenium supplementation in all forms examined, except sodium selenate, decreased the rate of spontaneous reversion. Selenium as sodium selenate was slightly mutagenic at concentrations of 4 ppm or less. Higher concentration of Na2SeO4 inhibited the mutagenicity of DMBA. The present studies support the anticarcinogenic potential of selenium and indicate that form and concentration are important factors in this trace element's efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- L K Arciszewska
- Department of Food Science, University of Illinos, 905 S. Goodwin Avenue, 61801, Urbana, Illinois
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Russo J, Tay LK, Russo IH. Differentiation of the mammary gland and susceptibility to carcinogenesis. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1982; 2:5-73. [PMID: 6216933 DOI: 10.1007/bf01805718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 454] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that in humans certain factors such as early menarche, late pregnancy, and nulliparity are associated with a higher risk of developing breast cancer, while early pregnancy acts as a protective factor. Induction of mammary cancer in rats by administration of the chemical carcinogen 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene reveals that the same factors influencing human breast cancer risk also affect the susceptibility of the rat mammary gland to the chemical carcinogen. Nulliparous rats and rats undergoing pregnancy interruption are more susceptible to developing carcinomas. This fact has been attributed to the incomplete differentiation of the gland at the time of carcinogen administration. Parous rats are resistant to the carcinogenic effect of DMBA, which is explained by the complete development of the gland attained during pregnancy and lactation. This development is manifested by the differentiation of terminal end buds into secretory units, which have a smaller proliferative compartment; the epithelial cells of these secretory units have a longer cell cycle, less avidity for binding DMBA, and possess a more efficient DNA excision repair capacity.
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MESH Headings
- 9,10-Dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene/metabolism
- 9,10-Dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene/pharmacology
- Abortion, Induced
- Adenosine Triphosphatases/analysis
- Aging
- Animals
- Antigens
- Breast Neoplasms/etiology
- Cell Cycle
- DNA/biosynthesis
- DNA Repair
- Disease Susceptibility
- Epithelial Cells
- Female
- Humans
- Mammary Glands, Animal/cytology
- Mammary Glands, Animal/growth & development
- Mammary Glands, Animal/immunology
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/chemically induced
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/etiology
- Maternal Age
- Parity
- Pregnancy
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred Strains
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Camus AM, Pyerin WG, Grover PL, Sims P, Malaveille C, Bartsch H. Mutagenicity of benzo[a]pyrene 7,8-dihydrodiol and 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene 3,4-dihydrodiol in S. typhimurium mediated by microsomes from rat liver and mouse skin. Chem Biol Interact 1980; 32:257-65. [PMID: 6775825 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(80)90093-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The mutagenic activities of trans-7,8-dihydro-7,8-dihydroxybenzo[a]-pyrene (BP 7,8-diol) and of trans-3,4-dihydroxy-7,12-dimethylbenz[a]-anthracene (DMBA 3,4-diol) towards S. typhimurium TA100 were measured in assays that were carried out on a micro-scale in liquid medium in the presence of microsomal fractions prepared from mouse skin or rat liver. In the presence of an NADPH-generating system, microsomal enzymes converted both diols into mutagens that were probably the respective 'bay-region' diol-epoxides. The rate of the enzyme-catalysed conversion of the BP 7,8-diol into mutagens by microsomal preparations from mouse epidermis was similar to that occurring with microsomes from rat liver. Pretreatment of mice by the topical application of benz[a]anthracene (BA) or 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]-anthracene (DMBA) increased the mutagenic activity of BP 7,8-diol mediated by mouse skin microsomal preparations by 2-fold and this was paralleled by a 4-fold increase in epidermal aryl hydrocarbon (benzo[a]pyrene) hydroxylase (AHH) activity. The results are discussed in relation to the high susceptibility of mouse skin to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) carcinogenesis.
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Sheikh YM, Cazer FD, Hart RW, Witiak DT. Biotransformation of 7, 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene(DMBA): on the genesis of DMBA-trans-dihydrodiols and DMBA-7- and 12-methylhydroxylated metabolites. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1980; 93:782-91. [PMID: 6770856 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(80)91145-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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11
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Cooper CS, Ribeiro O, Hewer A, Walsh C, Grover PL, Sims P. Additional evidence for the involvement of the 3,4-diol 1,2-oxides in the metabolic activation of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene in mouse skin. Chem Biol Interact 1980; 29:357-67. [PMID: 6766815 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(80)90154-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The role of vicinal diol-epoxides in the metabolic activation of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene to intermediates that react with nucleic acids was investigated using Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography and high pressure liquid chromatography. The results show that some of the hydrocarbon-DNA products formed in mouse skin treated in vivo with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene arise from the reaction of DNA with 3,4-dihydro-3,4-dihydroxy-7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene 1,2-oxides which, on the basis of this and other evidence, appears to be a biologically-active metabolite of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. However, since other nucleic acid-hydrocarbon adducts were also present that have not been identified as resulting from the reaction of the 3,4-diol 1,2-oxides with DNA, other mechanisms may also be involved in the metabolic activation of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene in mouse skin.
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Chouroulinkov I, Gentil A, Tierney B, Grover PL, Sims P. The initiation of tumours on mouse skin by dihydrodiols derived from 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene and 3-methylcholanthrene. Int J Cancer 1979; 24:455-60. [PMID: 118940 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.2910240413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The cis-2a,3-diol and the trans-4,5-, trans-7,8-, trans-9,10- and trans-11,12-dihydrodiols of 3-methylcholanthrene and the trans-3,4, trans-5,6-, trans-8,9. and trans-10,11- dihydrodiols of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthrancene have been tested, in comparison with the parent hydrocarbons, for their abilities to initiate skin tumours in female CDI mice. Groups of mice received a single topical application (25 micrograms) of a diol or of a hydrocarbon, and 1 week later repeated topical applications (1 microgram) of 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate were commenced. The results show that the diol of 3-methylcholanthrene and the 3,4-diol of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthrancene were active as initiating agents but that they were no more active than their parent hydrocarbon. The K-region 5,6-diol of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthrancene, which cannot be converted directly into a vicinal diol-epoxide, was also active as a tumour-initiating agent when applied to mouse skin.
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13
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Chou MW, Easton GD, Yang SK. Metabolism of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and its methyl-hydroxylated metabolites: formation of phenolic metabolites at the 2-positions. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1979; 88:1085-91. [PMID: 111674 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(79)91519-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Pal K, Grover PL, Sims P. The induction of sister chromatid exchanges by dihydrodiols derived from 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and 3-methylcholanthrene. Cancer Lett 1979; 7:45-9. [PMID: 110440 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3835(79)80075-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The in vitro induction of sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs) in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells by the polycyclic hydrocarbons, 7,12-dimethylbena[a]anthracene and 3-methylcholanthrene and some of the related dihydrodiols was investigated. Increased numbers of SCEs were seen in the chromosomes of cells exposed to non-K-region dihydrodiols. The most active compounds were the 3,4-dihydrodiol of 7,12-dimethylbenza[a]anthracene and the 7,8- and 9,10-dihydrodiols of 3-methylcholanthrene: the parent hydrocarbons and their corresponding K-region dihydrodiols were relatively less active. The results are consistent with others that suggest that the metabolic activation of both hydrocarbons proceeds through the conversion of non-K-region dihydrodiols into vicinal diol-epoxides.
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