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Mitra R, Premraj L, Khoo TK. Neuromelanin: Its role in the pathogenesis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease and potential as a therapeutic target. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2023:105448. [PMID: 37236833 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2023.105448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is an increasingly prevalent condition that involves the marked loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. These neurons pigmented with neuromelanin along with other regions of the brain are almost exclusively victims of neurodegeneration in the disease. The link between neuromelanin and Parkinson's disease has been widely studied for decades. While many studies have outlined the pigment's neuroprotective function as a potent free radical scavenger, antioxidant, and ion-chelator, it has also been observed to play a role in cell death due to mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, especially in the parkinsonian disease state. This is due to the damaging effects of neuromelanin precursors, neuromelanin-related ion dysregulation and intra- and extraneuronal neuromelanin accumulation. Current and emerging therapeutic endeavours guided by these pathological processes may include antioxidant therapy, proteostasis enhancement, ion chelation and neuromelanin-targeted immunotherapy to prevent the accumulation, formation and effects of neuromelanin and oxidative neuromelanin precursors. Some of these therapeutic strategies are already in nascent stages, while others have produced mixed results in clinical trials. This review aims to provide an update on how neuromelanin and neuromelanin-related substances may be linked to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease and how future therapeutic strategies may be able to hamper or prevent neuromelanin-related pathological processes and ultimately modify disease progression in Parkinson's.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritoban Mitra
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, South Australia, Australia.
| | - Lavienraj Premraj
- School of Medicine & Dentistry, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Tien K Khoo
- School of Medicine & Dentistry, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia; Graduate School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
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Nagatsu T, Nakashima A, Watanabe H, Ito S, Wakamatsu K, Zucca FA, Zecca L, Youdim M, Wulf M, Riederer P, Dijkstra JM. The role of tyrosine hydroxylase as a key player in neuromelanin synthesis and the association of neuromelanin with Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2023; 130:611-625. [PMID: 36939908 PMCID: PMC10121510 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-023-02617-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2023]
Abstract
The dark pigment neuromelanin (NM) is abundant in cell bodies of dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and norepinephrine (NE) neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) in the human brain. During the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD), together with the degeneration of the respective catecholamine (CA) neurons, the NM levels in the SN and LC markedly decrease. However, questions remain among others on how NM is associated with PD and how it is synthesized. The biosynthesis pathway of NM in the human brain has been controversial because the presence of tyrosinase in CA neurons in the SN and LC has been elusive. We propose the following NM synthesis pathway in these CA neurons: (1) Tyrosine is converted by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) to L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), which is converted by aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase to DA, which in LC neurons is converted by dopamine β-hydroxylase to NE; (2) DA or NE is autoxidized to dopamine quinone (DAQ) or norepinephrine quinone (NEQ); and (3) DAQ or NEQ is converted to eumelanic NM (euNM) and pheomelanic NM (pheoNM) in the absence and presence of cysteine, respectively. This process involves proteins as cysteine source and iron. We also discuss whether the NM amounts per neuromelanin-positive (NM+) CA neuron are higher in PD brain, whether NM quantitatively correlates with neurodegeneration, and whether an active lifestyle may reduce NM formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiharu Nagatsu
- Center for Research Promotion and Support, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan.
| | - Akira Nakashima
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, School of Medicine, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Hirohisa Watanabe
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Shosuke Ito
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Kazumasa Wakamatsu
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Fabio A Zucca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate (Milan), Italy
| | - Luigi Zecca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate (Milan), Italy
| | - Moussa Youdim
- Technion-Rappaport Family Faculty of Medicine, Haifa, Israel
- Department of Biology, Yonsey World Central University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Maximilian Wulf
- Medical Proteome-Analysis, Center for Protein Diagnostics (PRODI), Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
- Medizinisches Proteom‑Center, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Peter Riederer
- Clinic and Polyclinic of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Würzburg, Germany
- Department and Research Unit of Psychiatry, Syddansk University, Odense, Denmark
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Wang S, Wu T, Cai Y, Yu Y, Chen X, Wang L. Neuromelanin magnetic resonance imaging of substantia nigra and locus coeruleus in Parkinson's disease with freezing of gait. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1060935. [PMID: 36819729 PMCID: PMC9932285 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1060935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The downregulation of monoamines, especially dopamine in substantia nigra (SN) and norepinephrine in locus coeruleus (LC), may be responsible for freezing of gait (FOG) pathological basis in Parkinson's disease (PD). Methods Thirty-two Parkinson's disease patients with freezing of gait (PD-FOG), 32 Parkinson's disease patients without freezing of gait (PD-NFOG) and 32 healthy controls (HC) underwent neuromelanin magnetic resonance imaging (NM-MRI). The volume, surface area and contrast to noise ratio (CNR) of SN and LC were measured and compared. The correlation analyses were conducted between the measurements of SN and LC with clinical symptoms. We plotted the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve and determined the sensitivity and specificity of the CNR of SN and LC for discriminating the PD-FOG from the PD-NFOG. Results Both PD-FOG and PD-NFOG showed decreased volume, surface area and CNR of SN compared with HC. The PD-FOG exhibited decreased volume and surface area of LC compared with both PD-NFOG and HC groups, and decreased CNR of LC compared with HC group. The volume, surface area and CNR of SN were negatively correlated with the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale part III scores. The illness durations in PD patients were negatively correlated with the volume, surface area of SN, while not the CNR. And the volume and surface area of LC were negatively correlated with new freezing of gait questionnaire scores. ROC analyses indicated that the area under the curve (AUC) was 0.865 and 0.713 in the CNR of SN and LC, respectively, in PD versus HC, whereas it was 0.494 and 0.637 respectively, in PD-FOG versus PD-NFOG. Among these, for discriminating the PD from the HC, the sensitivity and specificity in the CNR of the SN was 90.6 and 71.9%, respectively, when the cut-off value was set at 2.101; the sensitivity and specificity in the CNR of the LC was 90.6 and 50.0%, respectively, when the cut-off value for CNR was set at 1.411. Conclusion The dopaminergic changes in the SN were found across both PD-FOG and PD-NFOG, whilst LC noradrenergic neuron reduction was more evident in PD-FOG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangpei Wang
- Department of Radiology, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Tong Wu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yajie Cai
- Department of Radiology, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yongqiang Yu
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,*Correspondence: Yongqiang Yu, ✉
| | - Xianwen Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Xianwen Chen, ✉
| | - Longsheng Wang
- Department of Radiology, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Longsheng Wang, ✉
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Ito S, Napolitano A, Sarna T, Wakamatsu K. Iron and copper ions accelerate and modify dopamine oxidation to eumelanin: implications for neuromelanin genesis. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2023; 130:29-42. [PMID: 36527527 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-022-02574-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) is a precursor of neuromelanin (NM) synthesized in the substantia nigra of the brain. NM is known to contain considerable levels of Fe and Cu. However, how Fe and Cu ions affect DA oxidation to DA-eumelanin (DA-EM) and modify its structure is poorly understood. EMs were prepared from 500 µM DA, dopaminechrome (DAC), or 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI). Autoxidation was carried out in the absence or presence of 50 µM Fe(II) or Cu(II) at pH 7.4 and 37 ℃. EMs were characterized by Soluene-350 solubilization analyzing absorbances at 500 nm (A500) and 650 nm (A650) and alkaline hydrogen peroxide oxidation (AHPO) yielding various pyrrole carboxylic acids. Pyrrole-2,3,4,5-tetracarboxylic acid (PTeCA) served as a molecular marker of cross-linked DHI units. Importantly, Fe and Cu accelerated DA oxidation to DA-EM and DHI oxidation to DHI-EM several-fold, whereas these metals only weakly affected the production of DAC-EM. The A500 values indicated that DA-EM contains considerable portions of uncyclized DA units. Analysis of the A650/A500 ratios suggests that Fe and Cu caused some degradation of DHI units of DA-EM during 72-h incubation. Results with AHPO were consistent with the A500 values and additionally revealed that (1) DA-EM is less cross-linked than DAC-EM and DHI-EM and (2) Fe and Cu promote cross-linking of DHI units. In conclusion, Fe and Cu not only accelerate the oxidation of DA to DA-EM but also promote cross-linking and degradation of DHI units. These results help to understand how Fe and Cu in the brain affect the production and properties of NM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shosuke Ito
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan.
| | | | - Tadeusz Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Kazumasa Wakamatsu
- Institute for Melanin Chemistry, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
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Association between Heavy Metal Exposure and Parkinson's Disease: A Review of the Mechanisms Related to Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11122467. [PMID: 36552676 PMCID: PMC9774122 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11122467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a gradually progressing neurodegenerative condition that is marked by a loss of motor coordination along with non-motor features. Although the precise cause of PD has not been determined, the disease condition is mostly associated with the exposure to environmental toxins, such as metals, and their abnormal accumulation in the brain. Heavy metals, such as iron (Fe), mercury (Hg), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), and lead (Pb), have been linked to PD and contribute to its progression. In addition, the interactions among the components of a metal mixture may result in synergistic toxicity. Numerous epidemiological studies have demonstrated a connection between PD and either single or mixed exposure to these heavy metals, which increase the prevalence of PD. Chronic exposure to heavy metals is related to the activation of proinflammatory cytokines resulting in neuronal loss through neuroinflammation. Similarly, metals disrupt redox homeostasis while inducing free radical production and decreasing antioxidant levels in the substantia nigra. Furthermore, these metals alter molecular processes and result in oxidative stress, DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis, which can potentially trigger dopaminergic neurodegenerative disorders. This review focuses on the roles of Hg, Pb, Mn, Cu, and Fe in the development and progression of PD. Moreover, it explores the plausible roles of heavy metals in neurodegenerative mechanisms that facilitate the development of PD. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying metal toxicities will enable the establishment of novel therapeutic approaches to prevent or cure PD.
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Pizarro-Galleguillos BM, Kunert L, Brüggemann N, Prasuhn J. Iron- and Neuromelanin-Weighted Neuroimaging to Study Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Patients with Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232213678. [PMID: 36430157 PMCID: PMC9696602 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232213678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The underlying causes of Parkinson's disease are complex, and besides recent advances in elucidating relevant disease mechanisms, no disease-modifying treatments are currently available. One proposed pathophysiological hallmark is mitochondrial dysfunction, and a plethora of evidence points toward the interconnected nature of mitochondria in neuronal homeostasis. This also extends to iron and neuromelanin metabolism, two biochemical processes highly relevant to individual disease manifestation and progression. Modern neuroimaging methods help to gain in vivo insights into these intertwined pathways and may pave the road to individualized medicine in this debilitating disorder. In this narrative review, we will highlight the biological rationale for studying these pathways, how distinct neuroimaging methods can be applied in patients, their respective limitations, and which challenges need to be overcome for successful implementation in clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Matis Pizarro-Galleguillos
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, 23588 Lübeck, Germany
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center for Brain, Behavior, and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Liesa Kunert
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, 23588 Lübeck, Germany
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center for Brain, Behavior, and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Norbert Brüggemann
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, 23588 Lübeck, Germany
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center for Brain, Behavior, and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-451-500-43420; Fax: +49-451-500-43424
| | - Jannik Prasuhn
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, 23588 Lübeck, Germany
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
- Center for Brain, Behavior, and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
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7
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Wulf M, Barkovits K, Schork K, Eisenacher M, Riederer P, Gerlach M, Eggers B, Marcus K. Neuromelanin granules of the substantia nigra: proteomic profile provides links to tyrosine hydroxylase, stress granules and lysosomes. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2022; 129:1257-1270. [PMID: 35852604 PMCID: PMC9468065 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-022-02530-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
AbstractNeuromelanin is a black-brownish pigment, present in so-called neuromelanin granules (NMGs) in the cell bodies of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) pars compacta. These neurons are lost in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. Although it is known that lipids, proteins, and environmental toxins accumulate in NMGs, the function of NMGs has not yet been finally clarified as well as their origin and the synthesis of neuromelanin. We, therefore, isolated NMGs and surrounding SN tissue from control patients by laser microdissection and analyzed the proteomic profile by tandem mass spectrometry. With our improved workflow, we were able to (1) strengthen the regularly reported link between NMGs and lysosomes, (2) detect tyrosine hydroxylase to be highly abundant in NMGs, which may be related to neuromelanin synthesis and (3) indicate a yet undescribed link between stress granules (SGs) and NMGs. Based on our findings, we cautiously hypothesize, that SGs may be the origin of NMGs or form in close proximity to them, potentially due to the oxidative stress caused by neuromelanin-bound metals.
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8
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Foley PB, Hare DJ, Double KL. A brief history of brain iron accumulation in Parkinson disease and related disorders. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2022; 129:505-520. [PMID: 35534717 PMCID: PMC9188502 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-022-02505-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Iron has a long and storied history in Parkinson disease and related disorders. This essential micronutrient is critical for normal brain function, but abnormal brain iron accumulation has been associated with extrapyramidal disease for a century. Precisely why, how, and when iron is implicated in neuronal death remains the subject of investigation. In this article, we review the history of iron in movement disorders, from the first observations in the early twentieth century to recent efforts that view extrapyramidal iron as a novel therapeutic target and diagnostic indicator.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dominic J. Hare
- Atomic Medicine Initiative, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
| | - Kay L. Double
- Brain and Mind Centre and School of Medical Sciences (Neuroscience), Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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9
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Foley PB, Hare DJ, Double KL. A brief history of brain iron accumulation in Parkinson disease and related disorders. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2022; 129:505-520. [PMID: 35534717 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-022-025055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Iron has a long and storied history in Parkinson disease and related disorders. This essential micronutrient is critical for normal brain function, but abnormal brain iron accumulation has been associated with extrapyramidal disease for a century. Precisely why, how, and when iron is implicated in neuronal death remains the subject of investigation. In this article, we review the history of iron in movement disorders, from the first observations in the early twentieth century to recent efforts that view extrapyramidal iron as a novel therapeutic target and diagnostic indicator.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dominic J Hare
- Atomic Medicine Initiative, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
| | - Kay L Double
- Brain and Mind Centre and School of Medical Sciences (Neuroscience), Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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10
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Mechanistic Insights Expatiating the Redox-Active-Metal-Mediated Neuronal Degeneration in Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23020678. [PMID: 35054862 PMCID: PMC8776156 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23020678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a complicated and incapacitating neurodegenerative malady that emanates following the dopaminergic (DArgic) nerve cell deprivation in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SN-PC). The etiopathogenesis of PD is still abstruse. Howbeit, PD is hypothesized to be precipitated by an amalgamation of genetic mutations and exposure to environmental toxins. The aggregation of α-synucelin within the Lewy bodies (LBs), escalated oxidative stress (OS), autophagy-lysosome system impairment, ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) impairment, mitochondrial abnormality, programmed cell death, and neuroinflammation are regarded as imperative events that actively participate in PD pathogenesis. The central nervous system (CNS) relies heavily on redox-active metals, particularly iron (Fe) and copper (Cu), in order to modulate pivotal operations, for instance, myelin generation, synthesis of neurotransmitters, synaptic signaling, and conveyance of oxygen (O2). The duo, namely, Fe and Cu, following their inordinate exposure, are viable of permeating across the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and moving inside the brain, thereby culminating in the escalated OS (through a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-reliant pathway), α-synuclein aggregation within the LBs, and lipid peroxidation, which consequently results in the destruction of DArgic nerve cells and facilitates PD emanation. This review delineates the metabolism of Fe and Cu in the CNS, their role and disrupted balance in PD. An in-depth investigation was carried out by utilizing the existing publications obtained from prestigious medical databases employing particular keywords mentioned in the current paper. Moreover, we also focus on decoding the role of metal complexes and chelators in PD treatment. Conclusively, metal chelators hold the aptitude to elicit the scavenging of mobile/fluctuating metal ions, which in turn culminates in the suppression of ROS generation, and thereby prelude the evolution of PD.
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11
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Alhassen S, Senel M, Alachkar A. Surface Plasmon Resonance Identifies High-Affinity Binding of l-DOPA to Siderocalin/Lipocalin-2 through Iron-Siderophore Action: Implications for Parkinson's Disease Treatment. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:158-165. [PMID: 34939797 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
l-3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA), the dopamine precursor, remains the frontline treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD). With the treatment progress, l-DOPA efficacy decreases, necessitating higher and more frequent doses, with higher risks of dyskinesia. l-DOPA chelates iron through its catechol group, forming the l-DOPA:Fe complex; however, the fate of this complex is unknown. Catechol siderophore-like compounds are known to bind siderocalin (Scn)/lipocalin-2 to form stable siderophore:Fe:Scn complexes. Scn is upregulated in PD patients' substantia nigra and may play a role in PD pathophysiology. Therefore, in this study, we used the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technique to examine the binding properties of l-DOPA to Scn. We found that l-DOPA formed a stable complex with Scn in the presence of Fe3+. Our analysis of the binding properties of l-DOPA precursors and metabolites indicates that the catechol group is necessary but not sufficient to form a stable complex with Scn. Finally, the affinity constant (Kd) of DOPA:Fe3+ binding with Scn (0.8 μM) was lower than l-DOPA plasma peak concentrations in l-DOPA preparations in the past six decades. Our results speculate a significant role for the l-DOPA-Scn complex in the decreased bioavailability of l-DOPA with the progress of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sammy Alhassen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of California─Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Mehmet Senel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of California─Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, United States
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Biruni University, Istanbul 34010, Turkey
| | - Amal Alachkar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of California─Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, United States
- Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, School of Information and Computer Sciences, University of California─Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, United States
- UC Irvine Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California─Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, United States
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12
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Riederer P, Monoranu C, Strobel S, Iordache T, Sian-Hülsmann J. Iron as the concert master in the pathogenic orchestra playing in sporadic Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2021; 128:1577-1598. [PMID: 34636961 PMCID: PMC8507512 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-021-02414-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
About 60 years ago, the discovery of a deficiency of dopamine in the nigro-striatal system led to a variety of symptomatic therapeutic strategies to supplement dopamine and to substantially improve the quality of life of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). Since these seminal developments, neuropathological, neurochemical, molecular biological and genetic discoveries contributed to elucidate the pathology of PD. Oxidative stress, the consequences of reactive oxidative species, reduced antioxidative capacity including loss of glutathione, excitotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, proteasomal dysfunction, apoptosis, lysosomal dysfunction, autophagy, suggested to be causal for ɑ-synuclein fibril formation and aggregation and contributing to neuroinflammation and neural cell death underlying this devastating disorder. However, there are no final conclusions about the triggered pathological mechanism(s) and the follow-up of pathological dysfunctions. Nevertheless, it is a fact, that iron, a major component of oxidative reactions, as well as neuromelanin, the major intraneuronal chelator of iron, undergo an age-dependent increase. And ageing is a major risk factor for PD. Iron is significantly increased in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) of PD. Reasons for this finding include disturbances in iron-related import and export mechanisms across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), localized opening of the BBB at the nigro-striatal tract including brain vessel pathology. Whether this pathology is of primary or secondary importance is not known. We assume that there is a better fit to the top-down hypotheses and pathogens entering the brain via the olfactory system, then to the bottom-up (gut-brain) hypothesis of PD pathology. Triggers for the bottom-up, the dual-hit and the top-down pathologies include chemicals, viruses and bacteria. If so, hepcidin, a regulator of iron absorption and its distribution into tissues, is suggested to play a major role in the pathogenesis of iron dyshomeostasis and risk for initiating and progressing ɑ-synuclein pathology. The role of glial components to the pathology of PD is still unknown. However, the dramatic loss of glutathione (GSH), which is mainly synthesized in glia, suggests dysfunction of this process, or GSH uptake into neurons. Loss of GSH and increase in SNpc iron concentration have been suggested to be early, may be even pre-symptomatic processes in the pathology of PD, despite the fact that they are progression factors. The role of glial ferritin isoforms has not been studied so far in detail in human post-mortem brain tissue and a close insight into their role in PD is called upon. In conclusion, "iron" is a major player in the pathology of PD. Selective chelation of excess iron at the site of the substantia nigra, where a dysfunction of the BBB is suggested, with peripherally acting iron chelators is suggested to contribute to the portfolio and therapeutic armamentarium of anti-Parkinson medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Riederer
- Clinic and Policlinic for Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Wuerzburg, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany. .,Department of Psychiatry, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.
| | - C Monoranu
- Institute of Pathology, Department of Neuropathology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - S Strobel
- Institute of Pathology, Department of Neuropathology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - T Iordache
- George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Targu Mures, Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - J Sian-Hülsmann
- Department of Medical Physiology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
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13
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Korzhevskii DE, Kirik OV, Guselnikova VV, Tsyba DL, Fedorova EA, Grigorev IP. Changes in cytoplasmic and extracellular neuromelanin in human substantia nigra with normal aging. Eur J Histochem 2021; 65. [PMID: 34468106 PMCID: PMC8419629 DOI: 10.4081/ejh.2021.3283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuromelanin (NM) is a dark polymer pigment produced in certain populations of catecholaminergic neurons in the brain. It is present in various areas of the human brain, most often in the substantia nigra (SN) pars compacta and the locus coeruleus, the main centers of dopaminergic and noradrenergic innervation, respectively. Interest in NM has revived in recent years due to the alleged link between NM and the particular vulnerability of NM-containing neurons to neurodegeneration. The aim of this work was to study the structural, cytochemical, and localization features of cytoplasmic and extracellular NM (eNM) in the human SN pars compacta during normal aging. Sections of human SN from young/middle-aged adults (25 to 51 years old, n=7) and older adults (60 to 78 years old, n=5), all of which had no neurological disorders, were stained histochemically for metals (Perls’ reaction, Mayer's hematoxylin) and immunohistochemically for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), Iba- 1, and CD68. It was shown that dopaminergic neurons in SN pars compacta differ in the amount of NM and the intensity of TH-immunoreactivity. The number of NM-containing neurons with decreased TH-immunoreactivity positively correlates with age. eNM is present in SN pars compacta in both young/middle-aged and older adults. The number of eNM accumulations increases with aging. Cytoplasmic and eNM are predominantly not stained using histochemical methods for detecting metals in people of all ages. We did not detect the appearance of amoeboid microglia in human SN pars compacta with aging, but we found an age-related increase in microglial phagocytic activity. The absence of pronounced microgliosis, as well as a pronounced loss of NM-containing neurons, indicate the absence of neuroinflammation in human SN pars compacta during normal aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitrii E Korzhevskii
- Department of General and Special Morphology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg.
| | - Olga V Kirik
- Department of General and Special Morphology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg.
| | - Valeriia V Guselnikova
- Department of General and Special Morphology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg.
| | - Darya L Tsyba
- Department of General and Special Morphology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg.
| | - Elena A Fedorova
- Department of General and Special Morphology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg.
| | - Igor P Grigorev
- Department of General and Special Morphology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg.
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14
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Is Chelation Therapy a Potential Treatment for Parkinson's Disease? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073338. [PMID: 33805195 PMCID: PMC8036775 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron loading in some brain regions occurs in Parkinson’s Disease (PD), and it has been considered that its removal by iron chelators could be an appropriate therapeutic approach. Since neuroinflammation with microgliosis is also a common feature of PD, it is possible that iron is sequestered within cells as a result of the “anaemia of chronic disease” and remains unavailable to the chelator. In this review, the extent of neuroinflammation in PD is discussed together with the role played by glia cells, specifically microglia and astrocytes, in controlling iron metabolism during inflammation, together with the results of MRI studies. The current use of chelators in clinical medicine is presented together with a discussion of two clinical trials of PD patients where an iron chelator was administered and showed encouraging results. It is proposed that the use of anti-inflammatory drugs combined with an iron chelator might be a better approach to increase chelator efficacy.
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15
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Galeb HA, Wilkinson EL, Stowell AF, Lin H, Murphy ST, Martin‐Hirsch PL, Mort RL, Taylor AM, Hardy JG. Melanins as Sustainable Resources for Advanced Biotechnological Applications. GLOBAL CHALLENGES (HOBOKEN, NJ) 2021; 5:2000102. [PMID: 33552556 PMCID: PMC7857133 DOI: 10.1002/gch2.202000102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Melanins are a class of biopolymers that are widespread in nature and have diverse origins, chemical compositions, and functions. Their chemical, electrical, optical, and paramagnetic properties offer opportunities for applications in materials science, particularly for medical and technical uses. This review focuses on the application of analytical techniques to study melanins in multidisciplinary contexts with a view to their use as sustainable resources for advanced biotechnological applications, and how these may facilitate the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanaa A. Galeb
- Department of ChemistryLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YBUK
- Department of ChemistryScience and Arts CollegeRabigh CampusKing Abdulaziz UniversityJeddah21577Saudi Arabia
| | - Emma L. Wilkinson
- Department of Biomedical and Life SciencesLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YGUK
| | - Alison F. Stowell
- Department of Organisation, Work and TechnologyLancaster University Management SchoolLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YXUK
| | - Hungyen Lin
- Department of EngineeringLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YWUK
| | - Samuel T. Murphy
- Department of EngineeringLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YWUK
- Materials Science InstituteLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YBUK
| | - Pierre L. Martin‐Hirsch
- Lancashire Teaching Hospitals NHS TrustRoyal Preston HospitalSharoe Green LanePrestonPR2 9HTUK
| | - Richard L. Mort
- Department of Biomedical and Life SciencesLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YGUK
| | - Adam M. Taylor
- Lancaster Medical SchoolLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YWUK
| | - John G. Hardy
- Department of ChemistryLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YBUK
- Materials Science InstituteLancaster UniversityLancasterLA1 4YBUK
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16
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The Neuromelanin Paradox and Its Dual Role in Oxidative Stress and Neurodegeneration. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10010124. [PMID: 33467040 PMCID: PMC7829956 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10010124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging is associated with an increasing dysfunction of key brain homeostasis mechanisms and represents the main risk factor across most neurodegenerative disorders. However, the degree of dysregulation and the affectation of specific pathways set apart normal aging from neurodegenerative disorders. In particular, the neuronal metabolism of catecholaminergic neurotransmitters appears to be a specifically sensitive pathway that is affected in different neurodegenerations. In humans, catecholaminergic neurons are characterized by an age-related accumulation of neuromelanin (NM), rendering the soma of the neurons black. This intracellular NM appears to serve as a very efficient quencher for toxic molecules. However, when a neuron degenerates, NM is released together with its load (many undegraded cellular components, transition metals, lipids, xenobiotics) contributing to initiate and worsen an eventual immune response, exacerbating the oxidative stress, ultimately leading to the neurodegenerative process. This review focuses on the analysis of the role of NM in normal aging and neurodegeneration related to its capabilities as an antioxidant and scavenging of harmful molecules, versus its involvement in oxidative stress and aberrant immune response, depending on NM saturation state and its extracellular release.
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17
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Hedges DM, Yorgason JT, Perez AW, Schilaty ND, Williams BM, Watt RK, Steffensen SC. Spontaneous Formation of Melanin from Dopamine in the Presence of Iron. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:E1285. [PMID: 33339254 PMCID: PMC7766172 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9121285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is associated with degeneration of neuromelanin (NM)-containing substantia nigra dopamine (DA) neurons and subsequent decreases in striatal DA transmission. Dopamine spontaneously forms a melanin through a process called melanogenesis. The present study examines conditions that promote/prevent DA melanogenesis. The kinetics, intermediates, and products of DA conversion to melanin in vitro, and DA melanogenesis under varying levels of Fe3+, pro-oxidants, and antioxidants were examined. The rate of melanogenesis for DA was substantially greater than related catecholamines norepinephrine and epinephrine and their precursor amino acids tyrosine and l-Dopa as measured by UV-IR spectrophotometry. Dopamine melanogenesis was concentration dependent on the pro-oxidant species and Fe3+. Melanogenesis was enhanced by the pro-oxidant hydrogen peroxide (EC50 = 500 μM) and decreased by the antioxidants ascorbate (IC50 = 10 μM) and glutathione (GSH; IC50 = 5 μM). Spectrophotometric results were corroborated by tuning a fast-scan cyclic voltammetry system to monitor DA melanogenesis. Evoked DA release in striatal brain slices resulted in NM formation that was prevented by GSH. These findings suggest that DA melanogenesis occurs spontaneously under physiologically-relevant conditions of oxidative stress and that NM may act as a marker of past exposure to oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. Hedges
- Enterprise Information Management, Billings Clinic, 2800 10th Avenue North, Billings, MT 59101, USA;
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, C100 BNSN, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA;
| | - Jordan T. Yorgason
- Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, 4005 LSB, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA;
- Neuroscience Program, S-192 ESC, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA; (A.W.P.); (N.D.S.); (B.M.W.)
| | - Andrew W. Perez
- Neuroscience Program, S-192 ESC, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA; (A.W.P.); (N.D.S.); (B.M.W.)
| | - Nathan D. Schilaty
- Neuroscience Program, S-192 ESC, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA; (A.W.P.); (N.D.S.); (B.M.W.)
- Department of Psychology, 1001 KMBL, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Benjamin M. Williams
- Neuroscience Program, S-192 ESC, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA; (A.W.P.); (N.D.S.); (B.M.W.)
| | - Richard K. Watt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, C100 BNSN, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA;
| | - Scott C. Steffensen
- Neuroscience Program, S-192 ESC, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA; (A.W.P.); (N.D.S.); (B.M.W.)
- Department of Psychology, 1001 KMBL, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
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18
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Martin-Bastida A, Tilley BS, Bansal S, Gentleman SM, Dexter DT, Ward RJ. Iron and inflammation: in vivo and post-mortem studies in Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2020; 128:15-25. [PMID: 33079260 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-020-02271-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In these present studies, in vivo and and post-mortem studies have investigated the association between iron and inflammation. Early-stage Parkinson's disease (PD) patients, of less than 5 years disease duration, showed associations of plasmatic ferritin concentrations with both proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 and hepcidin, a regulator of iron metabolism as well as clinical measures. In addition ratios of plasmatic ferritin and iron accumulation in deep grey matter nuclei assessed with relaxometry T2* inversely correlated with disease severity and duration of PD. On the hand, post-mortem material of the substantia nigra compacta (SNc) divided according to Braak and Braak scores, III-IV and V-VI staging, exhibited comparable microgliosis, with a variety of phenotypes present. There was an association between the intensity of microgliosis and iron accumulation as assayed by Perl's staining in the SNc sections. In conclusion, markers of inflammation and iron metabolism in both systemic and brain systems are closely linked in PD, thus offering a potential biomarker for progression of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Martin-Bastida
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
- Department of Neurology and Neurosciences, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona-Madrid, Spain.
| | - Bension Shlomo Tilley
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sukhi Bansal
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Steve M Gentleman
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - David T Dexter
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Roberta J Ward
- Centre for Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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19
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D’Mello SR, Kindy MC. Overdosing on iron: Elevated iron and degenerative brain disorders. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2020; 245:1444-1473. [PMID: 32878460 PMCID: PMC7553095 DOI: 10.1177/1535370220953065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
IMPACT STATEMENT Brain degenerative disorders, which include some neurodevelopmental disorders and age-associated diseases, cause debilitating neurological deficits and are generally fatal. A large body of emerging evidence indicates that iron accumulation in neurons within specific regions of the brain plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many of these disorders. Iron homeostasis is a highly complex and incompletely understood process involving a large number of regulatory molecules. Our review provides a description of what is known about how iron is obtained by the body and brain and how defects in the homeostatic processes could contribute to the development of brain diseases, focusing on Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease as well as four other disorders belonging to a class of inherited conditions referred to as neurodegeneration based on iron accumulation (NBIA) disorders. A description of potential therapeutic approaches being tested for each of these different disorders is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark C Kindy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- James A. Haley Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
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20
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Ekstrand B, Scheers N, Rasmussen MK, Young JF, Ross AB, Landberg R. Brain foods - the role of diet in brain performance and health. Nutr Rev 2020; 79:693-708. [PMID: 32989449 DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuaa091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The performance of the human brain is based on an interplay between the inherited genotype and external environmental factors, including diet. Food and nutrition, essential in maintenance of brain performance, also aid in prevention and treatment of mental disorders. Both the overall composition of the human diet and specific dietary components have been shown to have an impact on brain function in various experimental models and epidemiological studies. This narrative review provides an overview of the role of diet in 5 key areas of brain function related to mental health and performance, including: (1) brain development, (2) signaling networks and neurotransmitters in the brain, (3) cognition and memory, (4) the balance between protein formation and degradation, and (5) deteriorative effects due to chronic inflammatory processes. Finally, the role of diet in epigenetic regulation of brain physiology is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Ekstrand
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Food and Nutrition Science, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Nathalie Scheers
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Food and Nutrition Science, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | | | - Alastair B Ross
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Food and Nutrition Science, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.,AgResearch, Lincoln, New Zealand
| | - Rikard Landberg
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Food and Nutrition Science, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
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21
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Genoud S, Jones MWM, Trist BG, Deng J, Chen S, Hare DJ, Double KL. Simultaneous structural and elemental nano-imaging of human brain tissue. Chem Sci 2020; 11:8919-8927. [PMID: 34123146 PMCID: PMC8163372 DOI: 10.1039/d0sc02844d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Examining chemical and structural characteristics of micro-features in complex tissue matrices is essential for understanding biological systems. Advances in multimodal chemical and structural imaging using synchrotron radiation have overcome many issues in correlative imaging, enabling the characterization of distinct microfeatures at nanoscale resolution in ex vivo tissues. We present a nanoscale imaging method that pairs X-ray ptychography and X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM) to simultaneously examine structural features and quantify elemental content of microfeatures in complex ex vivo tissues. We examined the neuropathological microfeatures Lewy bodies, aggregations of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) and neuromelanin in human post-mortem Parkinson's disease tissue. Although biometals play essential roles in normal neuronal biochemistry, their dyshomeostasis is implicated in Parkinson's disease aetiology. Here we show that Lewy bodies and SOD1 aggregates have distinct elemental fingerprints yet are similar in structure, whilst neuromelanin exhibits different elemental composition and a distinct, disordered structure. The unique approach we describe is applicable to the structural and chemical characterization of a wide range of complex biological tissues at previously unprecedented levels of detail. Structural and chemical characterisation of microfeatures in unadulterated Parkinson's disease brain tissue using synchrotron nanoscale XFM and ptychography.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Sian Genoud
- Brain and Mind Centre and Discipline of Pharmacology, The University of Sydney Camperdown NSW 2050 Australia
| | - Michael W M Jones
- Central Analytical Research Facility, Institute for Future Environments, Queensland University of Technology Brisbane QLD 4000 Australia
| | - Benjamin Guy Trist
- Brain and Mind Centre and Discipline of Pharmacology, The University of Sydney Camperdown NSW 2050 Australia
| | - Junjing Deng
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory Lemont IL 60439 USA
| | - Si Chen
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory Lemont IL 60439 USA
| | - Dominic James Hare
- Brain and Mind Centre and Discipline of Pharmacology, The University of Sydney Camperdown NSW 2050 Australia .,School of Biosciences, Department of Clinical Pathology, The University of Melbourne Parkville VIC 3010 Australia .,Atomic Medicine Initiative, University of Technology Sydney NSW 2007 Australia
| | - Kay L Double
- Brain and Mind Centre and Discipline of Pharmacology, The University of Sydney Camperdown NSW 2050 Australia
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22
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Janitzky K. Impaired Phasic Discharge of Locus Coeruleus Neurons Based on Persistent High Tonic Discharge-A New Hypothesis With Potential Implications for Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front Neurol 2020; 11:371. [PMID: 32477246 PMCID: PMC7235306 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The locus coeruleus (LC) is a small brainstem nucleus with widely distributed noradrenergic projections to the whole brain, and loss of LC neurons is a prominent feature of age-related neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). This article discusses the hypothesis that in early stages of neurodegenerative diseases, the discharge mode of LC neurons could be changed to a persistent high tonic discharge, which in turn might impair phasic discharge. Since phasic discharge of LC neurons is required for the release of high amounts of norepinephrine (NE) in the brain to promote anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects, persistent high tonic discharge of LC neurons could be a key factor in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Transcutaneous vagal stimulation (t-VNS), a non-invasive technique that potentially increases phasic discharge of LC neurons, could therefore provide a non-pharmacological treatment approach in specific disease stages. This article focuses on LC vulnerability in neurodegenerative diseases, discusses the hypothesis that a persistent high tonic discharge of LC neurons might affect neurodegenerative processes, and finally reflects on t-VNS as a potentially useful clinical tool in specific stages of AD and PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Janitzky
- Department of Neurology, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
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23
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Sian-Hulsmann J, Riederer P. The role of alpha-synuclein as ferrireductase in neurodegeneration associated with Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2020; 127:749-754. [PMID: 32318880 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-020-02192-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Misfolding of the protein α-synuclein contributes to the formation of the intracellular inclusion, Lewy bodies. Although these structures are not exclusive to Parkinson's disease, nevertheless, their presence in the substantia nigra is mandatory for the pathological diagnosis of the disorder. Therefore, there must be a focus on the pathological mechanisms responsible for Lewy body generation. Recent studies have suggested that α-synuclein has the potential to operate as the enzyme ferrireductase. Perhaps in the early diseased state, overexpression or mutation of alpha-synuclein/ferrireductase invokes the dyshomeostasis of iron (III)/(II) only, while in advanced stages, accumulation of iron in particular areas of the brain follows. Furthermore, the loss of an important iron chelator, neuromelanin (due to dopaminergic neuronal death), may then result in the release and increase in unbound free iron. Iron could generate reactive oxygen species, which could instigate a torrent of cellular deleterious processes. In addition, loss of energy supply may contribute to the alteration in activity of enzymes involved in the mitochondrial respiratory chain and would, therefore, confer a vulnerability to the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Therefore, the ferrireductase alpha-synuclein may hold the key for major pathology of Parkinson's disease. In conclusion, we hypothesize that environmentally or genetically overexpressed and/or mutated α-synuclein/ferrireductase causes iron dyshomeostasis without increase of free iron concentration in the early phases of PD, while increased iron concentration accompanied by iron dyshomeostasis is a marker for progressed PD stages. It is essential to elucidate these degenerative mechanisms, so as to provide effective therapeutic treatment to halt or delay the progression of the illness already in the early phase of PD. The development of iron chelators seems to be a reasonable approach.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter Riederer
- University Hospital Wuerzburg, Clinic and Policlinic for Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy Margarete-Hoeppel-Platz 1, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany.,University of Southern Denmark Odense, J.B. Winslows Vey 18, 5000, Odense, Denmark
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24
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Richter D, Katsanos AH, Schroeder C, Tsivgoulis G, Paraskevas GP, Müller T, Alexandrov AV, Gold R, Tönges L, Krogias C. Lentiform Nucleus Hyperechogenicity in Parkinsonian Syndromes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Consideration of Molecular Pathology. Cells 2019; 9:cells9010002. [PMID: 31861253 PMCID: PMC7016776 DOI: 10.3390/cells9010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The hyperechogenicity of the substania nigra (SN) has been established as a valid finding in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD), probably caused by an increased tissue iron concentration in the SN. The application of transcranial sonography (TCS) has been investigated for further echogenic basal ganglia alterations in patients with extrapyramidal movement disorders. Compared to PD, a hyperechogenic nucleus lentiformis (LN) has been reported to appear more frequently in atypical parkinsonian syndromes (aPS) such as the parkinsonian phenotype of multiple system atrophy (MSA-P) or the progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP). As the evidence providing study sizes are small, we conduct the first meta-analysis of the prevalence of LN hyperechogenicity in PD and aPS. We search for available studies providing prevalence of LN hyperechogenicity in patients with PD and aPS (MSA-P and PSP) detected by TCS in MEDLINE and SCOPUS databases. We calculate the prevalence rates of LN hyperechogenicity detection in patients with clinical diagnosis of PD vs. aPS under the random-effects model. We include a total of 1330 patients, 1091 PD and 239 aPS (MSA-P and PSP). We find a significantly higher prevalence of LN hyperechogenicity in aPS (76%, 95% CI: 0.62-0.88) compared to PD (16%, 95% CI: 0.10-0.23). After proving a higher prevalence of LN hyperechogenicity in aPS compared to PD, its histopathological cause needs to be investigated. Furthermore, its full diagnostic accuracy and the qualification to serve as a risk factor for MSA-P and PSP should also be questioned in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Richter
- Department of Neurology, St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany; (D.R.); (A.H.K.); (C.S.); (R.G.); (L.T.)
| | - Aristeidis H. Katsanos
- Department of Neurology, St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany; (D.R.); (A.H.K.); (C.S.); (R.G.); (L.T.)
- 2nd Department of Neurology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15344 Athens, Greece;
| | - Christoph Schroeder
- Department of Neurology, St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany; (D.R.); (A.H.K.); (C.S.); (R.G.); (L.T.)
| | - Georgios Tsivgoulis
- 2nd Department of Neurology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15344 Athens, Greece;
- Department of Neurology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA;
| | - George P. Paraskevas
- 1st Department of Neurology, Cognitive and Movement Disorders Clinic and Unit of Neurochemistry and Biological Markers, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Eginition Hospital, 11528 Athens, Greece;
| | - Thomas Müller
- Department of Neurology, Alexianer St. Joseph Berlin-Weißensee, 13088 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Andrei V. Alexandrov
- Department of Neurology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA;
| | - Ralf Gold
- Department of Neurology, St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany; (D.R.); (A.H.K.); (C.S.); (R.G.); (L.T.)
- Neurodegeneration Research, Protein Research Unit Ruhr (PURE), Ruhr University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany
| | - Lars Tönges
- Department of Neurology, St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany; (D.R.); (A.H.K.); (C.S.); (R.G.); (L.T.)
- Neurodegeneration Research, Protein Research Unit Ruhr (PURE), Ruhr University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany
| | - Christos Krogias
- Department of Neurology, St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany; (D.R.); (A.H.K.); (C.S.); (R.G.); (L.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-234-509-6410; Fax: +49-234-509-2414
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25
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Sergi D, Renaud J, Simola N, Martinoli MG. Diabetes, a Contemporary Risk for Parkinson's Disease: Epidemiological and Cellular Evidences. Front Aging Neurosci 2019; 11:302. [PMID: 31787891 PMCID: PMC6856011 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM), a group of diseases characterized by defective glucose metabolism, is the most widespread metabolic disorder affecting over 400 million adults worldwide. This pathological condition has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a number of central encephalopathies and peripheral neuropathies. In further support of this notion, recent epidemiological evidence suggests a link between DM and Parkinson’s disease (PD), with hyperglycemia emerging as one of the culprits in neurodegeneration involving the nigrostriatal pathway, the neuroanatomical substrate of the motor symptoms affecting parkinsonian patients. Indeed, dopaminergic neurons located in the mesencephalic substantia nigra appear to be particularly vulnerable to oxidative stress and degeneration, likely because of their intrinsic susceptibility to mitochondrial dysfunction, which may represent a direct consequence of hyperglycemia and hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress. Other pathological pathways induced by increased intracellular glucose levels, including the polyol and the hexosamine pathway as well as the formation of advanced glycation end-products, may all play a pivotal role in mediating the detrimental effects of hyperglycemia on nigral dopaminergic neurons. In this review article, we will examine the epidemiological as well as the molecular and cellular clues supporting the potential susceptibility of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons to hyperglycemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Sergi
- Nutrition and Health Substantiation Group, Nutrition and Health Program, Health and Biosecurity, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Justine Renaud
- Cellular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biology, Université du Québec, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada
| | - Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.,National Institute for Neuroscience (INN), University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Maria-Grazia Martinoli
- Cellular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biology, Université du Québec, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Université Laval and CHU Research Center, Québec, QC, Canada
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26
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Xu R, Soavi F, Santato C. An Electrochemical Study on the Effect of Metal Chelation and Reactive Oxygen Species on a Synthetic Neuromelanin Model. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2019; 7:227. [PMID: 31681735 PMCID: PMC6813213 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2019.00227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuromelanin is present in the cathecolaminergic neuron cells of the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus of the midbrain of primates. Neuromelanin plays a role in Parkinson's disease (PD). Literature reports that neuromelanin features, among others, antioxidant properties by metal ion chelation and free radical scavenging. The pigment has been reported to have prooxidant properties too, in certain experimental conditions. We propose an explorative electrochemical study of the effect of the presence of metal ions and reactive oxygen species (ROS) on the cyclic voltammograms of a synthetic model of neuromelanin. Our work improves the current understanding on experimental conditions where neuromelanin plays an antioxidant or prooxidant behavior, thus possibly contributing to shed light on factors promoting the appearance of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ri Xu
- Department of Engineering Physics, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Francesca Soavi
- Dipartimento di Chimica "Giacomo Ciamician", Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Clara Santato
- Department of Engineering Physics, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
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27
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Redox active metals in neurodegenerative diseases. J Biol Inorg Chem 2019; 24:1141-1157. [PMID: 31650248 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-019-01731-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) are redox active metals essential for the regulation of cellular pathways that are fundamental for brain function, including neurotransmitter synthesis and release, neurotransmission, and protein turnover. Cu and Fe are tightly regulated by sophisticated homeostatic systems that tune the levels and localization of these redox active metals. The regulation of Cu and Fe necessitates their coordination to small organic molecules and metal chaperone proteins that restrict their reactions to specific protein centres, where Cu and Fe cycle between reduced (Fe2+, Cu+) and oxidised states (Fe3+, Cu2+). Perturbation of this regulation is evident in the brain affected by neurodegeneration. Here we review the evidence that links Cu and Fe dyshomeostasis to neurodegeneration as well as the promising preclinical and clinical studies reporting pharmacological intervention to remedy Cu and Fe abnormalities in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
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28
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Vila M. Neuromelanin, aging, and neuronal vulnerability in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2019; 34:1440-1451. [PMID: 31251435 PMCID: PMC7079126 DOI: 10.1002/mds.27776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuromelanin, a dark brown intracellular pigment, has long been associated with Parkinson's disease (PD). In PD, neuromelanin-containing neurons preferentially degenerate, tell-tale neuropathological inclusions form in close association with this pigment, and neuroinflammation is restricted to neuromelanin-containing areas. In humans, neuromelanin accumulates with age, which in turn is the main risk factor for PD. The potential contribution of neuromelanin to PD pathogenesis remains unknown because, in contrast to humans, common laboratory animals lack neuromelanin. The recent introduction of a rodent model exhibiting an age-dependent production of human-like neuromelanin has allowed, for the first time, for the consequences of progressive neuromelanin accumulation-up to levels reached in elderly human brains-to be assessed in vivo. In these animals, intracellular neuromelanin accumulation above a specific threshold compromises neuronal function and triggers a PD-like pathology. As neuromelanin levels reach this threshold in PD patients and presymptomatic PD patients, the modulation of neuromelanin accumulation could provide a therapeutic benefit for PD patients and delay brain aging. © 2019 The Author. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miquel Vila
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research GroupVall d'Hebron Research Institute–Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative DiseasesBarcelonaSpain
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyAutonomous University of BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced StudiesBarcelonaSpain
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29
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Hopfner F, Hobert MA, Maetzler C, Hansen C, Pham MH, Moreau C, Berg D, Devos D, Maetzler W. Mobility Deficits Assessed With Mobile Technology: What Can We Learn From Brain Iron-Altered Animal Models? Front Neurol 2019; 10:833. [PMID: 31440200 PMCID: PMC6694697 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Recent developments in mobile technology have enabled the investigation of human movements and mobility under natural conditions, i.e., in the home environment. Iron accumulation in the basal ganglia is deleterious in Parkinson's disease (i.e., iron accumulation with lower striatal level of dopamine). The effect of iron chelation (i.e., re-deployment of iron) in Parkinson's disease patients is currently tested in a large investigator-initiated multicenter study. Conversely, restless legs syndrome (RLS) is associated with iron depletion and higher striatal level of dopamine. To determine from animal models which movement and mobility parameters might be associated with iron content modulation and the potential effect of therapeutic chelation inhuman. Methods: We recapitulated pathophysiological aspects of the association between iron, dopamine, and neuronal dysfunction and deterioration in the basal ganglia, and systematically searched PubMed to identify original articles reporting about quantitatively assessed mobility deficits in animal models of brain iron dyshomeostasis. Results: We found six original studies using murine and fly models fulfilling the inclusion criteria. Especially postural and trunk stability were altered in animal models with iron overload. Animal models with lowered basal ganglia iron suffered from alterations in physical activity, mobility, and sleep fragmentation. Conclusion: From preclinical investigations in the animal model, we can deduce that possibly also in humans with iron accumulation in the basal ganglia undergoing therapeutic chelation may primarily show changes in physical activity (such as daily “motor activity”), postural and trunk stability and sleep fragmentation. These changes can readily be monitored with currently available mobile technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Hopfner
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Markus A Hobert
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Corina Maetzler
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Clint Hansen
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Minh Hoang Pham
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Caroline Moreau
- Department of Movement Disorders and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Lille University Hospital, Lille University, INSERM U1171, Lille, France
| | - Daniela Berg
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - David Devos
- Departments of Medical Pharmacology and Movement Disorders, Lille University Hospital, Lille University, INSERM U1171, Lille, France
| | - Walter Maetzler
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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30
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Oertel WH, Henrich MT, Janzen A, Geibl FF. The locus coeruleus: Another vulnerability target in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2019; 34:1423-1429. [DOI: 10.1002/mds.27785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Annette Janzen
- Department of Neurology Philipps University Marburg Marburg Germany
| | - Fanni F. Geibl
- Department of Neurology Philipps University Marburg Marburg Germany
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31
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Riederer P, Berg D, Casadei N, Cheng F, Classen J, Dresel C, Jost W, Krüger R, Müller T, Reichmann H, Rieß O, Storch A, Strobel S, van Eimeren T, Völker HU, Winkler J, Winklhofer KF, Wüllner U, Zunke F, Monoranu CM. α-Synuclein in Parkinson's disease: causal or bystander? J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2019; 126:815-840. [PMID: 31240402 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-019-02025-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) comprises a spectrum of disorders with differing subtypes, the vast majority of which share Lewy bodies (LB) as a characteristic pathological hallmark. The process(es) underlying LB generation and its causal trigger molecules are not yet fully understood. α-Synuclein (α-syn) is a major component of LB and SNCA gene missense mutations or duplications/triplications are causal for rare hereditary forms of PD. As typical sporadic PD is associated with LB pathology, a factor of major importance is the study of the α-syn protein and its pathology. α-Syn pathology is, however, also evident in multiple system atrophy (MSA) and Lewy body disease (LBD), making it non-specific for PD. In addition, there is an overlap of these α-synucleinopathies with other protein-misfolding diseases. It has been proven that α-syn, phosphorylated tau protein (pτ), amyloid beta (Aβ) and other proteins show synergistic effects in the underlying pathogenic mechanisms. Multiple cell death mechanisms can induce pathological protein-cascades, but this can also be a reverse process. This holds true for the early phases of the disease process and especially for the progression of PD. In conclusion, while rare SNCA gene mutations are causal for a minority of familial PD patients, in sporadic PD (where common SNCA polymorphisms are the most consistent genetic risk factor across populations worldwide, accounting for 95% of PD patients) α-syn pathology is an important feature. Conversely, with regard to the etiopathogenesis of α-synucleinopathies PD, MSA and LBD, α-syn is rather a bystander contributing to multiple neurodegenerative processes, which overlap in their composition and individual strength. Therapeutic developments aiming to impact on α-syn pathology should take this fact into consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Riederer
- Clinic and Policlinic for Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Würzburg, University of Würzburg, Margarete-Höppel-Platz 1, 97080, Würzburg, Germany. .,Department of Psychiatry, University of South Denmark, Odense, Denmark.
| | - Daniela Berg
- Department of Neurology, UKHS, Christian-Albrechts-Universität, Campus Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Nicolas Casadei
- NGS Competence Center Tübingen, Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Fubo Cheng
- NGS Competence Center Tübingen, Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Joseph Classen
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christian Dresel
- Department of Neurology, Center for Movement Disorders, Neuroimaging Center Mainz, Clinical Neurophysiology, Forschungszentrum Translationale Neurowissenschaften (FTN), Rhein-Main-Neuronetz, Mainz, Germany
| | | | - Rejko Krüger
- Clinical and Experimental Neuroscience, LCSB (Luxembourg Centre for Systems, Biomedicine), University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette and Centre Hospitalier de Luxembourg (CHL), Luxembourg, Luxembourg.,National Center for Excellence in Research, Parkinson's disease (NCER-PD), Parkinson Research Clinic, Centre Hospitalier de Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Luxembourg
| | - Thomas Müller
- Department of Neurology, Alexianer St. Joseph Berlin-Weißensee, Berlin, Germany
| | - Heinz Reichmann
- Department of Neurology, University of Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Olaf Rieß
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Alexander Storch
- Department of Neurology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany.,German Centre for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Rostock/Greifswald, Rostock, Germany
| | - Sabrina Strobel
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Thilo van Eimeren
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | | | - Jürgen Winkler
- Department Kopfkliniken, Molekulare Neurologie, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Konstanze F Winklhofer
- Institute of Biochemistry and Pathobiochemistry, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Ullrich Wüllner
- Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE Bonn), Bonn, Germany
| | - Friederike Zunke
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Camelia-Maria Monoranu
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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32
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Yang
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Yu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, P. R. China
| | - Jianlin Shi
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, P. R. China
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33
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Billings JL, Gordon SL, Rawling T, Doble PA, Bush AI, Adlard PA, Finkelstein DI, Hare DJ. l
‐3,4‐dihydroxyphenylalanine (
l
‐DOPA) modulates brain iron, dopaminergic neurodegeneration and motor dysfunction in iron overload and mutant alpha‐synuclein mouse models of Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 2019; 150:88-106. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 12/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L. Billings
- Melbourne Dementia Research Centre at The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Sarah L. Gordon
- Melbourne Dementia Research Centre at The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Tristan Rawling
- School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences Faculty of Science University of Technology Sydney Broadway New South Wales Australia
| | - Philip A. Doble
- Elemental Bio‐imaging Facility University of Technology Sydney Broadway New South Wales Australia
| | - Ashley I. Bush
- Melbourne Dementia Research Centre at The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Paul A. Adlard
- Melbourne Dementia Research Centre at The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - David I. Finkelstein
- Melbourne Dementia Research Centre at The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Dominic J. Hare
- Melbourne Dementia Research Centre at The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
- Elemental Bio‐imaging Facility University of Technology Sydney Broadway New South Wales Australia
- Department of Clinical Pathology The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
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34
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De Micco R, Russo A, Tessitore A. Structural MRI in Idiopathic Parkinson's Disease. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2018; 141:405-438. [PMID: 30314605 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Among modern neuroimaging modalities, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a widely available, non-invasive, and cost-effective method to detect structural and functional abnormalities related to neurodegenerative disorders. In the last decades, MRI have been widely implemented to support PD diagnosis as well as to provide further insights into motor and non-motor symptoms pathophysiology, complications and treatment-related effects. Different aspects of the brain morphology and function may be derived from a single scan, by applying different analytic approaches. Biomarkers of neurodegeneration as well as tissue microstructural changes may be extracted from structural MRI techniques. In this chapter, we analyze the role of structural imaging to differentiate PD patients from controls and to define neural substrates of motor and non-motor PD symptoms. Evidence collected in the premotor PD phase will be also critically discussed. White matter as well as gray matter integrity imaging studies has been reviewed, aiming to highlight points of strength and limits to their potential application in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa De Micco
- Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic and Aging Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Napoli, Italy; MRI Research Center SUN-FISM, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Napoli, Italy
| | - Antonio Russo
- Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic and Aging Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Napoli, Italy; MRI Research Center SUN-FISM, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Napoli, Italy
| | - Alessandro Tessitore
- Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic and Aging Sciences, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Napoli, Italy; MRI Research Center SUN-FISM, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Napoli, Italy.
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35
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Willkommen D, Lucio M, Schmitt-Kopplin P, Gazzaz M, Schroeter M, Sigaroudi A, Michalke B. Species fractionation in a case-control study concerning Parkinson's disease: Cu-amino acids discriminate CSF of PD from controls. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2018; 49:164-170. [PMID: 29472131 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 01/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease is affecting about 1% of the population above 65 years. Improvements in medicine support prolonged lifetime which increases the total concentration of humans affected by the disease. It is suggested that occupational and environmental exposure to metals like iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) can influence the risk for Parkinson's disease. These metals play a key role as cofactors in many enzymes and proteins. METHODS In this case-control study, we investigated the Mn-, Fe-, Cu- and Zn-species in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by size-exclusion chromatography hyphenated to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SEC-ICP-MS) and the total concentration of these metals by inductively coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometry (ICP-sf-MS). RESULTS The investigation of total metal concentration and speciation provided only minor changes, but it produced strong significance for a number of ratios. The analysis revealed a strong change in the ratio between total concentration of Fe and the amino acid-fraction of Cu. This could be observed when analyzing both the respective element concentrations of the fraction (which also depends on individual variation of the total element concentration) as well as when being expressed as percentage of total concentration (normalization) which more clearly shows changes of distribution pattern independent of individual variation of total element concentrations. CONCLUSION Speciation analysis, therefore, is a powerful technique to investigate changes in a case-control study where ratios of different species play an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desiree Willkommen
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Analytical Biogeochemistry, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany.
| | - Marianna Lucio
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Analytical Biogeochemistry, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Philippe Schmitt-Kopplin
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Analytical Biogeochemistry, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; TU München, Lehrstuhl für Analytische Lebensmittelchemie, Wissenschaftszentrum Weihenstephan, Alte Akademie 10, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Malaz Gazzaz
- Uniklinik Köln, Institut I für Pharmakologie, Zentrum für Pharmakologie, Gleueler Straße 24, 50931 Köln, Germany
| | - Michael Schroeter
- Uniklinik Köln, Klinik und Poliklinik für Neurologie und Psychiatrie, Kerpener Str. 62, 50924 Köln, Germany
| | - Ali Sigaroudi
- Uniklinik Köln, Institut I für Pharmakologie, Zentrum für Pharmakologie, Gleueler Straße 24, 50931 Köln, Germany; Universitätsspital Zürich, Klinik für Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Rämistraße 100, 8091 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Bernhard Michalke
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Analytical Biogeochemistry, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
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36
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Lumsden AL, Rogers JT, Majd S, Newman M, Sutherland GT, Verdile G, Lardelli M. Dysregulation of Neuronal Iron Homeostasis as an Alternative Unifying Effect of Mutations Causing Familial Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:533. [PMID: 30150923 PMCID: PMC6099262 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The overwhelming majority of dominant mutations causing early onset familial Alzheimer’s disease (EOfAD) occur in only three genes, PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP. An effect-in-common of these mutations is alteration of production of the APP-derived peptide, amyloid β (Aβ). It is this key fact that underlies the authority of the Amyloid Hypothesis that has informed Alzheimer’s disease research for over two decades. Any challenge to this authority must offer an alternative explanation for the relationship between the PSEN genes and APP. In this paper, we explore one possible alternative relationship – the dysregulation of cellular iron homeostasis as a common effect of EOfAD mutations in these genes. This idea is attractive since it provides clear connections between EOfAD mutations and major characteristics of Alzheimer’s disease such as dysfunctional mitochondria, vascular risk factors/hypoxia, energy metabolism, and inflammation. We combine our ideas with observations by others to describe a “Stress Threshold Change of State” model of Alzheimer’s disease that may begin to explain the existence of both EOfAD and late onset sporadic (LOsAD) forms of the disease. Directing research to investigate the role of dysregulation of iron homeostasis in EOfAD may be a profitable way forward in our struggle to understand this form of dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Lumsden
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Jack T Rogers
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry-Neuroscience, Massachusetts General Hospital (East), Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Shohreh Majd
- Neuronal Injury and Repair Laboratory, Centre for Neuroscience, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Morgan Newman
- Centre for Molecular Pathology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Greg T Sutherland
- Discipline of Pathology, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Giuseppe Verdile
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
| | - Michael Lardelli
- Centre for Molecular Pathology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
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37
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Prasad S, Saini J, Yadav R, Pal PK. Motor asymmetry and neuromelanin imaging: Concordance in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2018; 53:28-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2018.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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38
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Wang J, Li Y, Huang Z, Wan W, Zhang Y, Wang C, Cheng X, Ye F, Liu K, Fei G, Zeng M, Jin L. Neuromelanin-sensitive magnetic resonance imaging features of the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus in de novo
Parkinson's disease and its phenotypes. Eur J Neurol 2018. [PMID: 29520900 DOI: 10.1111/ene.13628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Wang
- Department of Radiology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
- Shanghai Medical Imaging Institute; Shanghai China
| | - Y. Li
- Department of Neurology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - Z. Huang
- Department of Neurology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - W. Wan
- Department of Neurology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - Y. Zhang
- MR Research; GE Healthcare; Shanghai China
| | - C. Wang
- Department of Neurology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - X. Cheng
- Department of Neurology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - F. Ye
- Department of Radiology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
- Shanghai Medical Imaging Institute; Shanghai China
| | - K. Liu
- Department of Radiology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
- Shanghai Medical Imaging Institute; Shanghai China
| | - G. Fei
- Department of Neurology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - M. Zeng
- Department of Radiology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
- Shanghai Medical Imaging Institute; Shanghai China
| | - L. Jin
- Department of Neurology; Zhongshan Hospital; Fudan University; Shanghai China
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Sulzer D, Cassidy C, Horga G, Kang UJ, Fahn S, Casella L, Pezzoli G, Langley J, Hu XP, Zucca FA, Isaias IU, Zecca L. Neuromelanin detection by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and its promise as a biomarker for Parkinson's disease. NPJ PARKINSONS DISEASE 2018; 4:11. [PMID: 29644335 PMCID: PMC5893576 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-018-0047-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease (PD) occurs after pathogenesis is advanced and many substantia nigra (SN) dopamine neurons have already died. Now that therapies to block this neuronal loss are under development, it is imperative that the disease be diagnosed at earlier stages and that the response to therapies is monitored. Recent studies suggest this can be accomplished by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) detection of neuromelanin (NM), the characteristic pigment of SN dopaminergic, and locus coeruleus (LC) noradrenergic neurons. NM is an autophagic product synthesized via oxidation of catecholamines and subsequent reactions, and in the SN and LC it increases linearly during normal aging. In PD, however, the pigment is lost when SN and LC neurons die. As shown nearly 25 years ago by Zecca and colleagues, NM’s avid binding of iron provides a paramagnetic source to enable electron and nuclear magnetic resonance detection, and thus a means for safe and noninvasive measure in living human brain. Recent technical improvements now provide a means for MRI to differentiate between PD patients and age-matched healthy controls, and should be able to identify changes in SN NM with age in individuals. We discuss how MRI detects NM and how this approach might be improved. We suggest that MRI of NM can be used to confirm PD diagnosis and monitor disease progression. We recommend that for subjects at risk for PD, and perhaps generally for older people, that MRI sequences performed at regular intervals can provide a pre-clinical means to detect presymptomatic PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Sulzer
- 1Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center , New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY USA.,2Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY USA.,3Department of Pharmacology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY USA
| | - Clifford Cassidy
- 4The Royal's Institute of Mental Health Research, Affiliated with the University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON Canada
| | - Guillermo Horga
- 1Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center , New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY USA
| | - Un Jung Kang
- 2Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY USA
| | - Stanley Fahn
- 2Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY USA
| | - Luigi Casella
- 5Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Gianni Pezzoli
- Parkinson Institute, ASST "Gaetano Pini-CTO", Milan, Italy
| | - Jason Langley
- 7Center for Advanced NeuroImaging, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA USA
| | - Xiaoping P Hu
- 8Department of Bioengineering, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA USA
| | - Fabio A Zucca
- 9Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Milan, Italy
| | - Ioannis U Isaias
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital and Julius-Maximillian-University, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Luigi Zecca
- 9Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Milan, Italy
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Song N, Wang J, Jiang H, Xie J. Astroglial and microglial contributions to iron metabolism disturbance in Parkinson's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2018; 1864:967-973. [PMID: 29317336 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Understandings of the disturbed iron metabolism in Parkinson's disease (PD) are largely from the perspectives of neurons. Neurodegenerative processes in PD trigger universal and conserved astroglial dysfunction and microglial activation. In this review, we start with astroglia and microglia in PD with an emphasis on their roles in spreading α-synuclein pathology, and then focus on their contributions in iron metabolism under normal conditions and the diseased state of PD. Elevated iron in the brain regions affects glial features, meanwhile, glial effects on neuronal iron metabolism are largely dependent on their releasing factors. These advances might be valuable for better understanding and modulating iron metabolism disturbance in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Song
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China; Institute of Brain Science and Disease, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China; Institute of Brain Science and Disease, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China; Institute of Brain Science and Disease, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Junxia Xie
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China; Institute of Brain Science and Disease, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The purpose of the study was to discuss the main mechanisms associated with environmental and genetic factors that contribute to the development of Parkinson's disease (PD). RECENT FINDINGS Novel genetic contributors to PD are being identified at a rapid pace in addition to novel environmental factors. The discovery of mutations in alpha-synuclein and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 causing inherited forms of PD along with epidemiological, in vitro, and in vivo studies identifying herbicides, pesticides, and metals as risk factors have dramatically improved our understanding of mechanisms involved in the development of PD. However, at the same time, these discoveries have also added layers of complexity to the disease. Within the last several years, the genetics associated with PD has dominated the field in many ways; however, the majority of PD cases are likely due to different combinations of environmental exposures and genetic susceptibility. The most common toxicants used to model PD including rotenone, paraquat, and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine have been shown to interact with many of the genes linked with PD such as alpha-synuclein. Therefore, an understanding of mechanisms common between genetic and environmental factors is essential for early detection and successful translation of potential therapies, which is the ultimate goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila M Fleming
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 State Route 44, RGE, Rootstown, OH, 44272, USA.
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Hernandez-Baltazar D, Zavala-Flores L, Villanueva-Olivo A. The 6-hydroxydopamine model and parkinsonian pathophysiology: Novel findings in an older model. NEUROLOGÍA (ENGLISH EDITION) 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nrleng.2015.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
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Fabbri M, Reimão S, Carvalho M, Nunes RG, Abreu D, Guedes LC, Bouça R, Lobo PP, Godinho C, Coelho M, Gonçalves NC, Rosa MM, Antonini A, Ferreira JJ. Substantia Nigra Neuromelanin as an Imaging Biomarker of Disease Progression in Parkinson’s Disease. JOURNAL OF PARKINSONS DISEASE 2017; 7:491-501. [DOI: 10.3233/jpd-171135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Fabbri
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Sofia Reimão
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Neurological Imaging, Hospital de Santa Maria, Centro Hospitalar Lisboa Norte, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Miguel Carvalho
- Instituto de Biofísica e Engenharia Biomédica, Faculdade de Ciências, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rita G. Nunes
- Instituto de Biofísica e Engenharia Biomédica, Faculdade de Ciências, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Bioengineering and Institute for Systems and Robotics (LARSyS), Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Daisy Abreu
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Leonor Correia Guedes
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Neurosciences, Hospital Santa Maria, Centro Hospitalar Lisboa Norte, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Raquel Bouça
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Patricia P. Lobo
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Catarina Godinho
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research Egas Moniz(CiiEM), Instituto Superior de Ciências da Saúde EgasMoniz, Monte de Caparica, Portugal
- CNS – Campus Neurológico Sénior, Torres Vedras, Portugal
| | - Miguel Coelho
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Neurosciences, Hospital Santa Maria, Centro Hospitalar Lisboa Norte, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Nilza C. Gonçalves
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Mario Miguel Rosa
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Neurosciences, Hospital Santa Maria, Centro Hospitalar Lisboa Norte, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Angelo Antonini
- Fondazione Ospedale San Camillo”-I.R.C.C.S., Parkinson and Movement Disorders Unit, Venice, Italy
| | - Joaquim J. Ferreira
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- CNS – Campus Neurológico Sénior, Torres Vedras, Portugal
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
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Zucca FA, Segura-Aguilar J, Ferrari E, Muñoz P, Paris I, Sulzer D, Sarna T, Casella L, Zecca L. Interactions of iron, dopamine and neuromelanin pathways in brain aging and Parkinson's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2017; 155:96-119. [PMID: 26455458 PMCID: PMC4826627 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 403] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There are several interrelated mechanisms involving iron, dopamine, and neuromelanin in neurons. Neuromelanin accumulates during aging and is the catecholamine-derived pigment of the dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra and norepinephrine neurons of the locus coeruleus, the two neuronal populations most targeted in Parkinson's disease. Many cellular redox reactions rely on iron, however an altered distribution of reactive iron is cytotoxic. In fact, increased levels of iron in the brain of Parkinson's disease patients are present. Dopamine accumulation can induce neuronal death; however, excess dopamine can be removed by converting it into a stable compound like neuromelanin, and this process rescues the cell. Interestingly, the main iron compound in dopamine and norepinephrine neurons is the neuromelanin-iron complex, since neuromelanin is an effective metal chelator. Neuromelanin serves to trap iron and provide neuronal protection from oxidative stress. This equilibrium between iron, dopamine, and neuromelanin is crucial for cell homeostasis and in some cellular circumstances can be disrupted. Indeed, when neuromelanin-containing organelles accumulate high load of toxins and iron during aging a neurodegenerative process can be triggered. In addition, neuromelanin released by degenerating neurons activates microglia and the latter cause neurons death with further release of neuromelanin, then starting a self-propelling mechanism of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Considering the above issues, age-related accumulation of neuromelanin in dopamine neurons shows an interesting link between aging and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio A Zucca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - Juan Segura-Aguilar
- Faculty of Medicine, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, ICBM, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Emanuele Ferrari
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - Patricia Muñoz
- Faculty of Medicine, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, ICBM, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Irmgard Paris
- Faculty of Medicine, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, ICBM, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile; Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Santo Tomás University, Viña del Mar, Chile
| | - David Sulzer
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tadeusz Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Luigi Casella
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Luigi Zecca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy.
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Liddell JR, White AR. Nexus between mitochondrial function, iron, copper and glutathione in Parkinson's disease. Neurochem Int 2017; 117:126-138. [PMID: 28577988 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2017.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is neuropathologically characterised by loss of catecholamine neurons in vulnerable brain regions including substantia nigra pars compacta and locus coeruleus. This review discusses how the susceptibility of these regions is defined by their shared biochemical characteristics that differentiate them from other neurons. Parkinson's disease is biochemically characterised by mitochondrial dysfunction, accumulation of iron, diminished copper content and depleted glutathione levels in these regions. This review also discusses this neuropathology, and provides evidence for how these pathological features are mechanistically linked to each other. This leads to the conclusion that disruption of mitochondrial function, or iron, copper or glutathione metabolism in isolation provokes the pathological impairment of them all. This creates a vicious cycle that drives pathology leading to mitochondrial failure and neuronal cell death in vulnerable brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey R Liddell
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Anthony R White
- Cell and Molecular Biology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia
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Abstract
Melanins are ancient biological pigments found in all kingdoms of life. In fungi, their role in microbial pathogenesis is well established; however, these complex biomolecules also confer upon fungal microorganisms the faculty to tolerate extreme environments such as the Earth's poles, the International Space Station and places contaminated by toxic metals and ionizing radiation. A remarkable property of melanin is its capacity to interact with a wide range of electromagnetic radiation frequencies, functioning as a protecting and energy harvesting pigment. Other roles of fungal melanin include scavenging of free radical, thermo-tolerance, metal ion sequestration, cell development, and mechanical-chemical cellular strength. In this review, we explore the various functions ascribed to this biological pigment in fungi and its remarkable physicochemical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radames JB Cordero
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
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48
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Alpha-synuclein and iron: two keys unlocking Parkinson’s disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2017; 124:973-981. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-017-1695-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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49
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Metals in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Disease: Relevance to Dementia with Lewy Bodies. J Mol Neurosci 2016; 60:279-288. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-016-0809-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian M Menter
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry, and Immunology Morehouse School of Medicine 720 Westview Drive SW Atlanta GA 30310 USA
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