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Li H, Deng J, Jia Q, Zhu L, Huang LZ. Enhanced Fe(OH) 2-driven reductive Dechlorination via shortened Fe-O bonds and colloidal medium. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 256:121589. [PMID: 38608620 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Fe2+ is usually adsorbed to the surface of iron-bearing clay, and iron (hydr)oxide in groundwater. However, the reductive activity of Fe(OH)2, a prevalent intermediate during the transformation of Fe2+, remains unclear. In this study, high-purity Fe(OH)2 was synthesized and tested for its activity in the degradation of carbon tetrachloride (CT). XRD data confirm that the synthesized material is a pure Fe(OH)2 crystal, exhibiting sharp peaks of (001) and (100) facets. Zeta potential analysis confirms that the off-white Fe(OH)2 is a colloidal suspension with a positive charge of ∼+35-50 mV. FTIR spectra reveal the formation of a coordination compound Fe2+ with OH-/OD-, derived from NaOH/OD. SEM and HRTEM results demonstrate that the Fe(OH)2 crystal has a regular octahedral structure with a size of ∼30-70 nm and average lattice spacings of 2.58 Å. Mössbauer spectrum verifies that the Fe2+ in Fe(OH)2/Fe(OD)2 is hexacoordinated with six Fe-O bonds. XAFS data demonstrate that the Fe-O bonds become shorter as the OH-:Fe(II) ratios increase. DFT results indicate that the (100) crystal face of Fe(OH)2 more readily transfers electrons to CT. In addition to being adsorbed to iron compounds, structural Fe2+ compounds such as Fe(OH)2 could also accelerate the electron transfer from Fe2+ to CT through shortened Fe-O bonds. The rate constant of CT reduction by Fe(OH)2 is as high as 0.794 min-1 when the OH-:Fe(II) ratio is 2.5 in water. This study aims to enhance our understanding of the structure-reactivity relationship of Fe2+ compounds in groundwater, particularly in relation to electron transfer mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huafeng Li
- School of Civil Engineering, Wuhan University, No. 8, East Lake South Road, Wuhan, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Science, Wuhan University, 430072, China
| | - Jia Deng
- School of Civil Engineering, Wuhan University, No. 8, East Lake South Road, Wuhan, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Science, Wuhan University, 430072, China
| | - Qianqian Jia
- School of Civil Engineering, Wuhan University, No. 8, East Lake South Road, Wuhan, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Science, Wuhan University, 430072, China
| | - Liandong Zhu
- School of Resources and Environmental Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, PR China
| | - Li-Zhi Huang
- School of Civil Engineering, Wuhan University, No. 8, East Lake South Road, Wuhan, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Science, Wuhan University, 430072, China.
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de Alwis C, Wahr K, Perrine KA. Influence of Cations on Direct CO 2 Capture and Mineral Film Formation: The Role of KCl and MgCl 2 at the Air/Electrolyte/Iron Interface. J Phys Chem A 2024; 128:4052-4067. [PMID: 38718205 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.4c01096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
Uncovering the mechanisms associated with CO2 capture through mineralization is vital for addressing rising CO2 levels. Iron in planetary soils, the mineral cycle, and atmospheric dust react with CO2 through complex surface chemistry. Here, the effect of cations on the growth of carbonate films on iron surfaces was investigated. In situ polarized modulated infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy was used to measure CO2 adsorption and oxidation of iron in MgCl2(aq) and KCl(aq), compared to FeCl2(aq) at the air/electrolyte/iron interface. The cation was found to influence the film composition and growth rates, as corroborated by infrared and photoelectron spectroscopy. In MgCl2(aq), a mixture of hydromagnesite, magnesite, and a Mg hydroxy carbonate film was grown on iron, while in KCl(aq), a potassium-rich bicarbonate film was grown. The cations were found to affect the rates of hydroxylation and carbonation, confirming a specific cation effect on carbonate film growth. In the submerged region, a heterogeneous mixture of lepidocrocite and iron hydroxy carbonate was produced, suggesting that Fe2+ dominates the surface products. Surface roughness measurements from in situ atomic force microscopy indicate iron initially corrodes faster in MgCl2(aq) than KCl(aq), due to the Cl- ions that initiate pitting and corrosion. In this region, cations were not found to affect the morphologies. This study shows surface corrosion is necessary to provide nucleation sites for film growth and that the cations influence the carbonate film, relevant for CO2 capture and planetary processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chathura de Alwis
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Kayleigh Wahr
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Kathryn A Perrine
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
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3
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Yao W, Zhang J, Gu K, Li J, Qian J. Synthesis, characterization and performances of green rusts for water decontamination: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 304:119205. [PMID: 35341820 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the application of green rusts (GRs) for water purification has received significant attention, but its full understanding has not been well achieved. Then, the comprehension about the synthesis and characteristics of GRs can highly favor their decontamination performances for the site-specific conditions. This review comprehensively summarized the synthesis, characteristics and performances of GRs including the GR (Cl-), GR (CO32-) and GR (SO42-) for sequestration of various aqueous pollutants (e.g., tetrachloride, Cr(VI), Se(VI), and U(VI), etc.). Generally, the different reactivity of GRs toward contaminants is strongly dependent on the GRs' characteristics (e.g., interlayer distance, specific surface area, and Fe(II) content) and solution chemistry (e.g., pH, background electrolytes, dissolved oxygen, and contaminant concentration, etc.). In addition, the reaction mechanisms of GRs with the contaminants involve the redox reactions, adsorption, catalytic oxidation, interlayer and octahedral incorporation, which can mutually or singly contribute to the decontamination to varying degrees. Particularly, this review addressed the transformation pathways of GRs under various solution chemistry conditions and clarified that the stability of GRs should be the key challenge for the real application. Finally, how to effectively use the GRs for water decontamination was proposed, which will significantly benefit the rational control of environmental pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Yao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094, PR China
| | - Jinhua Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094, PR China
| | - Kaili Gu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094, PR China
| | - Jinxiang Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094, PR China.
| | - Jieshu Qian
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094, PR China
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de Alwis C, Trought M, Lundeen J, Perrine KA. Effect of Cations on the Oxidation and Atmospheric Corrosion of Iron Interfaces to Minerals. J Phys Chem A 2021; 125:8047-8063. [PMID: 34491752 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.1c06451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Surface corrosion involves a series of redox reactions that are catalyzed by the presence of ions. On infrastructure surfaces and in complex and natural environments, iron surfaces readily undergo redox reactions, impacting chemical processes. In this study, the effect of how cations influence the formation of the mineral scale on iron surfaces and its connection to surface corrosion was investigated in CaCl2(aq) and NaCl(aq) electrolytes. Polarized modulated-infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS) measurements were used to measure the oxidation and formation of carbonates at the air/electrolyte/iron interface, which confirmed that the iron surface oxidized faster in CaCl2(aq) than in NaCl(aq). PM-IRRAS, attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy show that after the adsorption of atmospheric O2 and CO2, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of calcite and aragonite was produced on iron in the presence of CaCl2(aq), whereas siderite (FeCO3) was produced on the surface of iron in the presence of NaCl(aq). However, in either solution without gradual O2 and CO2 exposure, a heterogeneous mixture of lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH) and an iron hydroxy carbonate (Fex(OH)yCO3) was grown on the iron surface. In situ liquid AFM was used to measure the surface roughness in CaCl2(aq) and NaCl(aq), as an estimation of the corrosion rate. In CaCl2(aq), Fe was found to corrode faster than Fe in NaCl(aq) due to more ions at equimolar concentrations. Surface physical changes, as measured by ex situ AFM, confirmed the presence of a heterogeneous mixture of γ-FeOOH and an Fex(OH)yCO3 in the submerged region. This indicates that the cation does not affect the type of mineral grown on the Fe surface in the region completely submerged in the electrolyte. These results suggest that the cations play a unique role in the initial stages of corrosion at the interface region, influencing the uptake of atmospheric CO2 and mineral nucleation. The knowledge gained from these interfacial reactions are important for understanding the connection between surface corrosion, mineral grown, and CO2 capture for sequestration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chathura de Alwis
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Mikhail Trought
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Julia Lundeen
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Kathryn A Perrine
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
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Rajendran HK, Deen Fakrudeen MA, Chandrasekar R, van Hullebusch ED, Velayudhaperumal Chellam P. Electrocatalytic removal of fluroquinolones from simulated pharmaceutical effluent: Chemometric analysis, chemical blueprint of electrodes and generated sludge. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 195:110844. [PMID: 33577773 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.110844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Electrocatalytic removal of fluroquinolones from simulated pharmaceutical effluent is studied in this work. The effects of parameters like NaCl concentration, pH and initial concentration of Ofloxacin were studied. The synergistic effect of H2O2 on the degradation of Ofloxacin paves the way to move towards radical based chemistry. The process was modelled and statistically evaluated through Central Composite Design approach towards the maximum concentration of Ofloxacin degraded (for 0.8 mM) as 0.46 mM at pH-3.0 and the concentration of H2O2 at 0.2 mM. The model was analyzed mathematically and observed as saddle response based on canonical and ridge analysis. The process follows pseudo first order kinetics with k = 0.047 min-1 and reaction rate of 13.6 mg.L-1.min-1. The mineralization efficiency of the process was studied using Total Organic Carbon analysis and 76.5% removal efficiency was obtained on the simulated pharmaceutical effluent containing Ofloxacin, Ciprofloxacin and Norfloxacin. The crystal structure of the green and red colour sludge was determined by XRD to be lepidocrocite (a = 3.87 Å, b = 12.4 Å, c = 3.06 Å) and gupeiite (a = 5.6620 Å), respectively. The elemental composition of sludge and electrodes were found using SEM-EDX. Morphological change in electrode surface was determined using roughness plot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harish Kumar Rajendran
- Centre for Research, Department of Biotechnology, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology, Madurai, Tamilnadu, India
| | - Mohammed Askkar Deen Fakrudeen
- Centre for Research, Department of Biotechnology, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology, Madurai, Tamilnadu, India
| | - Ragavan Chandrasekar
- Centre for Research, Department of Biotechnology, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology, Madurai, Tamilnadu, India
| | - Eric D van Hullebusch
- Université de Paris, Institut de Physique Du Globe de Paris, CNRS, F-75005, Paris, France
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Removal of Arsenate and Arsenite in Equimolar Ferrous and Ferric Sulfate Solutions through Mineral Coprecipitation: Formation of Sulfate Green Rust, Goethite, and Lepidocrocite. SOIL SYSTEMS 2020; 4:1-16. [PMID: 33629038 PMCID: PMC7898115 DOI: 10.3390/soilsystems4040068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
An improved understanding of in situ mineralization in the presence of dissolved arsenic and both ferrous and ferric iron is necessary because it is an important geochemical process in the fate and transformation of arsenic and iron in groundwater systems. This work aimed at evaluating mineral phases that could form and the related transformation of arsenic species during coprecipitation. We conducted batch tests to precipitate ferrous (133 mM) and ferric (133 mM) ions in sulfate (533 mM) solutions spiked with As (0–100 mM As(V) or As(III)) and titrated with solid NaOH (400 mM). Goethite and lepidocrocite were formed at 0.5–5 mM As(V) or As(III). Only lepidocrocite formed at 10 mM As(III). Only goethite formed in the absence of added As(V) or As(III). Iron (II, III) hydroxysulfate green rust (sulfate green rust or SGR) was formed at 50 mM As(III) at an equilibrium pH of 6.34. X-ray analysis indicated that amorphous solid products were formed at 10–100 mM As(V) or 100 mM As(III). The batch tests showed that As removal ranged from 98.65–100%. Total arsenic concentrations in the formed solid phases increased with the initial solution arsenic concentrations ranging from 1.85–20.7 g kg−1. Substantial oxidation of initially added As(III) to As(V) occurred, whereas As(V) reduction did not occur. This study demonstrates that concentrations and species of arsenic in the parent solution influence the mineralogy of coprecipitated solid phases, which in turn affects As redox transformations.
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7
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van Genuchten CM, Behrends T, Dideriksen K. Emerging investigator series: interdependency of green rust transformation and the partitioning and binding mode of arsenic. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2019; 21:1459-1476. [PMID: 31353376 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00267g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the impact of aging-induced structural modifications of carbonate green rust (GR), a mixed valent Fe(ii,iii) (hydr)oxide with a high oxyanion sorption affinity, on the partitioning and binding mode of arsenic (As). Suspensions of carbonate GR were produced in the presence of As(v) or As(iii) (i.e. co-precipitated with As(iii) or As(v)) and aged in anoxic and oxic conditions for up to a year. We tracked aqueous As over time and characterized the solid phase by X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). In experiments with initial As(v) (4500 μg L-1, As/Fe = 2 mol%), the fresh GR suspension sorbed >99% of the initial As, resulting in approximately 14 ± 8 μg L-1 residual dissolved As. Anoxic aging of the As(v)-laden GR for a month increased aqueous As to >60 μg L-1, which was coupled to an increase in GR structural order revealed by Fe K-edge XAS. Further anoxic aging up to a year transformed As(v)-laden GR into magnetite and decreased significantly the aqueous As to <2 μg L-1. The As binding mode was also modified during GR transformation to magnetite from sorption to GR particle edges to As substitution for tetrahedral Fe in the magnetite structure. These GR structural modifications altered the ratio of As partitioning to the solid (μg As/mg Fe) and liquid (μg As per L) phase from 2.0 to 0.4 to 14 L mg-1 for the fresh, month, and year aged suspensions, respectively. Similar trends in GR transformation and As partitioning during anoxic aging were observed for As(iii)-laden suspensions, but occurred on more rapid timescales: As(iii)-laden GR transformed to magnetite after a day of anoxic aging. In oxic aging experiments, rapid GR oxidation by dissolved oxygen to Fe(iii) precipitates required only an hour for both As(v) and As(iii) experiments, with lepidocrocite favored in As(v) experiments and hydrous ferric oxide favored in As(iii) experiments. Aqueous As during GR oxidation decreased to <10 μg L-1 for both As(v) and As(iii) series. Knowledge of this interdependence between GR aging products and oxyanion fate improves biogeochemical models of contaminant and nutrient dynamics during Fe cycling and can be used to design more effective arsenic remediation strategies that rely on arsenic sorption to GR.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M van Genuchten
- Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS), Copenhagen, Denmark.
- Department of Earth Sciences - Geochemistry, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - T Behrends
- Department of Earth Sciences - Geochemistry, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - K Dideriksen
- Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS), Copenhagen, Denmark.
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9
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Genovese C, Schuster ME, Gibson EK, Gianolio D, Posligua V, Grau-Crespo R, Cibin G, Wells PP, Garai D, Solokha V, Krick Calderon S, Velasco-Velez JJ, Ampelli C, Perathoner S, Held G, Centi G, Arrigo R. Operando spectroscopy study of the carbon dioxide electro-reduction by iron species on nitrogen-doped carbon. Nat Commun 2018; 9:935. [PMID: 29507285 PMCID: PMC5838105 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03138-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The carbon-carbon coupling via electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide represents the biggest challenge for using this route as platform for chemicals synthesis. Here we show that nanostructured iron (III) oxyhydroxide on nitrogen-doped carbon enables high Faraday efficiency (97.4%) and selectivity to acetic acid (61%) at very-low potential (-0.5 V vs silver/silver chloride). Using a combination of electron microscopy, operando X-ray spectroscopy techniques and density functional theory simulations, we correlate the activity to acetic acid at this potential to the formation of nitrogen-coordinated iron (II) sites as single atoms or polyatomic species at the interface between iron oxyhydroxide and the nitrogen-doped carbon. The evolution of hydrogen is correlated to the formation of metallic iron and observed as dominant reaction path over iron oxyhydroxide on oxygen-doped carbon in the overall range of negative potential investigated, whereas over iron oxyhydroxide on nitrogen-doped carbon it becomes important only at more negative potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Genovese
- Department of Chemical, Biological Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, ERIC aisbl and CASPE/INSTM, V.le F. Stagno d'Alcontres, 31, 98166, Messina, Italy
| | | | - Emma K Gibson
- UK Catalysis Hub, Research Complex at Harwell (RCaH), Harwell, Oxforshire, OX11 0FA, UK
- Department of Chemistry, UCL, 20 Gordon Street, London, WC1 0AJ, UK
| | - Diego Gianolio
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK
| | - Victor Posligua
- Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AD, UK
| | - Ricardo Grau-Crespo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AD, UK
| | - Giannantonio Cibin
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK
| | - Peter P Wells
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK
- School of Chemistry, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Debi Garai
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK
| | - Vladyslav Solokha
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK
| | | | - Juan J Velasco-Velez
- Max-Planck Institut für Chemische Energiekonversion, Stiftstr. 34 - 36, 45470, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - Claudio Ampelli
- Department of Chemical, Biological Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, ERIC aisbl and CASPE/INSTM, V.le F. Stagno d'Alcontres, 31, 98166, Messina, Italy
| | - Siglinda Perathoner
- Department of Chemical, Biological Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, ERIC aisbl and CASPE/INSTM, V.le F. Stagno d'Alcontres, 31, 98166, Messina, Italy
| | - Georg Held
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK
- Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AD, UK
| | - Gabriele Centi
- Department of Mathematical, Computer, Physical and Earth Sciences - University of Messina, ERIC aisbl and CASPE/INSTM, V.le F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166, Messina, Italy
| | - Rosa Arrigo
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AD, UK.
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Usman M, Byrne JM, Chaudhary A, Orsetti S, Hanna K, Ruby C, Kappler A, Haderlein SB. Magnetite and Green Rust: Synthesis, Properties, and Environmental Applications of Mixed-Valent Iron Minerals. Chem Rev 2018; 118:3251-3304. [PMID: 29465223 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Mixed-valent iron [Fe(II)-Fe(III)] minerals such as magnetite and green rust have received a significant amount of attention over recent decades, especially in the environmental sciences. These mineral phases are intrinsic and essential parts of biogeochemical cycling of metals and organic carbon and play an important role regarding the mobility, toxicity, and redox transformation of organic and inorganic pollutants. The formation pathways, mineral properties, and applications of magnetite and green rust are currently active areas of research in geochemistry, environmental mineralogy, geomicrobiology, material sciences, environmental engineering, and environmental remediation. These aspects ultimately dictate the reactivity of magnetite and green rust in the environment, which has important consequences for the application of these mineral phases, for example in remediation strategies. In this review we discuss the properties, occurrence, formation by biotic as well as abiotic pathways, characterization techniques, and environmental applications of magnetite and green rust in the environment. The aim is to present a detailed overview of the key aspects related to these mineral phases which can be used as an important resource for researchers working in a diverse range of fields dealing with mixed-valent iron minerals.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Usman
- Environmental Mineralogy, Center for Applied Geosciences , University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen , Germany.,Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences , University of Agriculture , Faisalabad 38040 , Pakistan
| | - J M Byrne
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geosciences , University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen , Germany
| | - A Chaudhary
- Environmental Mineralogy, Center for Applied Geosciences , University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen , Germany.,Department of Environmental Science and Engineering , Government College University Faisalabad 38000 , Pakistan
| | - S Orsetti
- Environmental Mineralogy, Center for Applied Geosciences , University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen , Germany
| | - K Hanna
- Univ Rennes, École Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes , CNRS, ISCR - UMR6226 , F-35000 Rennes , France
| | - C Ruby
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement , UMR 7564 CNRS-Université de Lorraine , 54600 Villers-Lès-Nancy , France
| | - A Kappler
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geosciences , University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen , Germany
| | - S B Haderlein
- Environmental Mineralogy, Center for Applied Geosciences , University of Tübingen , 72074 Tübingen , Germany
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Oberoi D, Dagar P, Shankar U, Vyas G, Kumar A, Sahu S, Bandyopadhyay A. Design, synthesis, and characterization of an Fe(ii)-polymer of a redox non-innocent, heteroatomic, polydentate Schiff's base ligand: negative differential resistance and memory behaviour. NEW J CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8nj04106g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Complete characterization and memristive study of the electrochemically active, novel Fe(ii)-polymer of a fluorescence active conjugated, hexadentate ligand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepa Oberoi
- Department of Polymer and Process Engineering
- Saharanpur-247001
- India
| | | | - Uday Shankar
- Department of Polymer and Process Engineering
- Saharanpur-247001
- India
| | | | - Anil Kumar
- Department of Polymer and Process Engineering
- Saharanpur-247001
- India
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12
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Yin W, Huang L, Pedersen EB, Frandsen C, Hansen HCB. Glycine buffered synthesis of layered iron(II)-iron(III) hydroxides (green rusts). J Colloid Interface Sci 2017; 497:429-438. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2016.11.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Etique M, Jorand FPA, Ruby C. Magnetite as a precursor for green rust through the hydrogenotrophic activity of the iron-reducing bacteria Shewanella putrefaciens. GEOBIOLOGY 2016; 14:237-254. [PMID: 26715461 DOI: 10.1111/gbi.12170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Magnetite (Fe(II) Fe(III) 2 O4 ) is often considered as a stable end product of the bioreduction of Fe(III) minerals (e.g., ferrihydrite, lepidocrocite, hematite) or of the biological oxidation of Fe(II) compounds (e.g., siderite), with green rust (GR) as a mixed Fe(II) -Fe(III) hydroxide intermediate. Until now, the biotic transformation of magnetite to GR has not been evidenced. In this study, we investigated the capability of an iron-reducing bacterium, Shewanella putrefaciens, to reduce magnetite at circumneutral pH in the presence of dihydrogen as sole inorganic electron donor. During incubation, GR and/or siderite (Fe(II) CO3 ) formation occurred as secondary iron minerals, resulting from the precipitation of Fe(II) species produced via the bacterial reduction of Fe(III) species present in magnetite. Taking into account the exact nature of the secondary iron minerals and the electron donor source is necessary to understand the exergonic character of the biotic transformation of magnetite to GR, which had been considered to date as thermodynamically unfavorable at circumneutral pH. This finding reinforces the hypothesis that GR would be the cornerstone of the microbial transformations of iron-bearing minerals in the anoxic biogeochemical cycle of iron and opens up new possibilities for the interpretation of the evolution of Earth's history and for the understanding of biocorrosion processes in the field of applied science.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Etique
- Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement, Villers-lès-Nancy, France
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement, Villers-lès-Nancy, France
| | - F P A Jorand
- Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement, Villers-lès-Nancy, France
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement, Villers-lès-Nancy, France
| | - C Ruby
- Université de Lorraine, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement, Villers-lès-Nancy, France
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement, Villers-lès-Nancy, France
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Touahra F, Sehailia M, Ketir W, Bachari K, Chebout R, Trari M, Cherifi O, Halliche D. Effect of the Ni/Al ratio of hydrotalcite-type catalysts on their performance in the methane dry reforming process. APPLIED PETROCHEMICAL RESEARCH 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s13203-015-0109-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Ma W, Ma R, Wang C, Liang J, Liu X, Zhou K, Sasaki T. A superlattice of alternately stacked Ni-Fe hydroxide nanosheets and graphene for efficient splitting of water. ACS NANO 2015; 9:1977-84. [PMID: 25605063 DOI: 10.1021/nn5069836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 283] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Cost-effective electrocatalysts based on nonprecious metals for efficient water splitting are crucial for various technological applications represented by fuel cell. Here, 3d transition metal layered double hydroxides (LDHs) with varied contents of Ni and Fe were successfully synthesized through a homogeneous precipitation. The exfoliated Ni-Fe LDH nanosheets were heteroassembled with graphene oxide (GO) as well as reduced graphene oxide (rGO) into superlattice-like hybrids, in which two kinds of oppositely charged nanosheets are stacked face-to-face in alternating sequence. Heterostructured composites of Ni2/3Fe1/3 LDH nanosheets and GO (Ni2/3Fe1/3-GO) exhibited an excellent oxygen evolution reaction (OER) efficiency with a small overpotential of about 0.23 V and Tafel slope of 42 mV/decade. The activity was further improved via the combination of Ni2/3Fe1/3 LDH nanosheets with more conductive rGO (Ni2/3Fe1/3-rGO) to achieve an overpotential as low as 0.21 V and Tafel plot of 40 mV/decade. The catalytic activity was enhanced with an increased Fe content in the bimetallic Ni-Fe system. Moreover, the composite catalysts were found to be effective for hydrogen evolution reaction. An electrolyzer cell powered by a single AA battery of 1.5 V was demonstrated by using the bifunctional catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ma
- International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (MANA), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS) , Namiki 1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
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Guerbois D, Ona-Nguema G, Morin G, Abdelmoula M, Laverman AM, Mouchel JM, Barthelemy K, Maillot F, Brest J. Nitrite reduction by biogenic hydroxycarbonate green rusts: evidence for hydroxy-nitrite green rust formation as an intermediate reaction product. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:4505-4514. [PMID: 24708473 DOI: 10.1021/es404009k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigates for the first time the reduction of nitrite by biogenic hydroxycarbonate green rusts, bio-GR(CO3), produced from the bioreduction of ferric oxyhydroxycarbonate (Fohc), a poorly crystalline solid phase, and of lepidocrocite, a well-crystallized Fe(III)-oxyhydroxide mineral. Results show a fast Fe(II) production from Fohc, which leads to the precipitation of bio-GR(CO3) particles that were roughly 2-fold smaller (2.3 ± 0.4 μm) than those obtained from the bioreduction of lepidocrocite (5.0 ± 0.4 μm). The study reveals that both bio-GR(CO3) are capable of reducing nitrite ions into gaseous nitrogen species such as NO, N2O, or N2 without ammonium production at neutral initial pH and that nitrite reduction proceeded to a larger extent with smaller particles than with larger ones. On the basis of the identification of intermediates and end-reaction products using X-ray diffraction and X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy at the Fe K-edge, our study shows the formation of hydroxy-nitrite green rust, GR(NO2), a new type of green rust 1, and suggests that the reduction of nitrite by biogenic GR(CO3) involves both external and internal reaction sites and that such a mechanism could explain the higher reactivity of green rust with respect to nitrite, compared to other mineral substrates possessing only external reactive sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Guerbois
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux, et de Cosmochimie (IMPMC), Sorbonne Universités-UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 7590 CNRS, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, IRD UMR 206 , 4 place Jussieu, F-75005 Paris, France
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Structure and occurrences of ≪ green rust ≫ related new minerals of the ≪ fougérite ≫ group, trébeurdenite and mössbauerite, belonging to the ≪ hydrotalcite ≫ supergroup; how Mössbauer spectroscopy helps XRD. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10751-014-1045-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Majano G, Ingold O, Yulikov M, Jeschke G, Pérez-Ramírez J. Room-temperature synthesis of Fe–BTC from layered iron hydroxides: the influence of precursor organisation. CrystEngComm 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ce41366g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Refait P, Bourdoiseau J, Jeannin M, Nguyen D, Romaine A, Sabot R. Electrochemical formation of carbonated corrosion products on carbon steel in deaerated solutions. Electrochim Acta 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.06.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Pantke C, Obst M, Benzerara K, Morin G, Ona-Nguema G, Dippon U, Kappler A. Green rust formation during Fe(II) oxidation by the nitrate-reducing Acidovorax sp. strain BoFeN1. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:1439-1446. [PMID: 22201257 DOI: 10.1021/es2016457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Green rust (GR) as highly reactive iron mineral potentially plays a key role for the fate of (in)organic contaminants, such as chromium or arsenic, and nitroaromatic compounds functioning both as sorbent and reductant. GR forms as corrosion product of steel but is also naturally present in hydromorphic soils and sediments forming as metastable intermediate during microbial Fe(III) reduction. Although already suggested to form during microbial Fe(II) oxidation, clear evidence for GR formation during microbial Fe(II) oxidation was lacking. In the present study, powder XRD, synchrotron-based XAS, Mössbauer spectroscopy, and TEM demonstrated unambiguously the formation of GR as an intermediate product during Fe(II) oxidation by the nitrate-reducing Fe(II)-oxidizer Acidovorax sp. strain BoFeN1. The spatial distribution and Fe redox-state of the precipitates associated with the cells were visualized by STXM. It showed the presence of extracellular Fe(III), which can be explained by Fe(III) export from the cells or extracellular Fe(II) oxidation by an oxidant diffusing from the cells. Moreover, GR can be oxidized by nitrate/nitrite and is known as a catalyst for oxidation of dissolved Fe(II) by nitrite/nitrate and may thus contribute to the production of extracellular Fe(III). As a result, strain BoFeN1 may contribute to Fe(II) oxidation and nitrate reduction both by an direct enzymatic pathway and an indirect GR-mediated process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Pantke
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen, Hölderlinstr. 12, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
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Refait P, Nguyen D, Jeannin M, Sable S, Langumier M, Sabot R. Electrochemical formation of green rusts in deaerated seawater-like solutions. Electrochim Acta 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.04.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Jeannin M, Calonnec D, Sabot R, Refait P. Role of a clay sediment deposit on the passivity of carbon steel in 0.1moldm−3 NaHCO3 solutions. Electrochim Acta 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2010.10.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Ahmed IAM, Benning LG, Kakonyi G, Sumoondur AD, Terrill NJ, Shaw S. Formation of green rust sulfate: a combined in situ time-resolved X-ray scattering and electrochemical study. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2010; 26:6593-6603. [PMID: 20180583 DOI: 10.1021/la903935j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism of green rust sulfate (GR-SO(4)) formation was determined using a novel in situ approach combining time-resolved synchrotron-based wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) with highly controlled chemical synthesis and electrochemical (i.e., Eh and pH) monitoring of the reaction. Using this approach,GR-SO(4) was synthesized under strictly anaerobic conditions by coprecipitation from solutions with known Fe(II)/Fe(III) ratios (i.e., 1.28 and 2) via the controlled increase of pH. The reaction in both systems proceeded via a three-stage precipitation and transformation reaction. During the first stage,schwertmannite (Fe(8)O(8)(OH)(4.5)(SO(4))(1.75)) precipitated directly from solution at pH 2.8-4.5. With increasing pH (>5), Fe(2+) ions adsorb to the surface of schwertmannite and catalyze its transformation to goethite (alpha-FeOOH) during the second stage of the reaction. In the third stage, the hydrolysis of the adsorbed Fe(2+) ions on goethite initiates its transformation to GR-SO(4) at pH >7. The GR-SO(4) then continues to crystallize up to pH approximately 8.5. These results suggest that with an Fe(II)/Fe(III) ratio of < or = 2 in the initial solution the structural Fe(II)/Fe(III) of the GR-SO(4) will be close to that of the starting composition.
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Christiansen BC, Balic-Zunic T, Dideriksen K, Stipp SLS. Identification of green rust in groundwater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2009; 43:3436-3441. [PMID: 19544836 DOI: 10.1021/es8011047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Green rust, a family of Fe(II), Fe(III) layered double hydroxides, is believed to be present in environments close to the Fe(II)/ Fe(III) transition zone. Attempts to identify members of this family in nature have proven difficult because the material is oxidized after only a few minutes exposure to air. In this paper, we present a sampling method for capturing green rust so it is not oxidized. We then we used the method to identify the compound in a groundwater sample taken below the water table from fractures in granite. X-ray diffraction patterns were weak, but clearly identical to those of synthetic GR(CO3), the green rustfamily memberwhere carbonate and water occupy the interlayer between the iron-hydroxide layers. The method was then tested on samples taken from an artesian well and a deep underground experimental station, both within the Fe(II)/ Fe(III) redox zone. In both cases, GR(CO3), could be identified. Currently, transport models for predicting the behavior of contaminants in groundwater do not include parameters for green rust This work demonstrates they should.
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Affiliation(s)
- B C Christiansen
- Nano-Science Center, Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen 0, Denmark.
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Antony H, Labrit A, Rouchaud J, Legrand L, Chaussé A. Study of FeII/FeIII ratio in thin films of carbonate or sulphate green rusts obtained by potentiostatic electrosynthesis. Electrochim Acta 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2008.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Kohn T, Roberts AL. The effect of silica on the degradation of organohalides in granular iron columns. JOURNAL OF CONTAMINANT HYDROLOGY 2006; 83:70-88. [PMID: 16364495 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2005.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2004] [Revised: 10/14/2005] [Accepted: 10/20/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Dissolved silica species are naturally occurring, ubiquitous groundwater constituents with corrosion-inhibiting properties. Their influence on the performance and longevity of iron-based permeable reactive barriers for treatment of organohalides was investigated through long-term column studies using Connelly iron as the reactive medium. Addition of dissolved silica (0.5 mM) to the column feed solution led to a reduction in iron reactivity of 65% for trichloroethylene (TCE), 74% for 1,1,2-trichloroethane (1,1,2-TCA), and 93% for 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCA), compared to columns operated under silica-free conditions. Even though silica adsorption was a gradual process, the inhibitory effect was evident within the first week, with subsequent decreases in reactivity over 288 days being relatively minor. Lower concentrations of dissolved silica species (0.2 mM) led to a lesser decrease (70%) in iron reactivity toward 1,1,1-TCA. The presence of dissolved silica species produced a shift in TCE product distribution toward the more highly chlorinated product cis-dichloroethylene (cis-DCE), although it did not appear to alter products originating from the trichloroethanes. The major corrosion products identified were magnetite (Fe3O4) or maghemite (gamma-Fe2O3) and carbonate green rust ([Fe4(2+)Fe(2)3+(OH)12][CO(3).2H2O]). Iron carbonate hydroxide (Fe(II)1.8Fe(III)0.2(OH)2.2CO3) was only found in the silica-free column, indicating that silica may hinder its formation. A comparison with columns operated under the same conditions, but using Master Builder iron as the reactive matrix, showed that Connelly iron is initially less reactive, but performs better than Master Builder iron over 288 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar Kohn
- Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, 313 Ames Hall Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N. Charles St., Baltimore, MD 21218-2686, USA
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Huet B, L’Hostis V, Miserque F, Idrissi H. Electrochemical behavior of mild steel in concrete: Influence of pH and carbonate content of concrete pore solution. Electrochim Acta 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2005.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Chemical Modification of Clay Surfaces. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/s1573-4285(04)80036-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
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Giordana S, Fiaud C. Corrosion behaviour of low-Si alloyed steels in neutral reducing conditions at 90°C. Electrochim Acta 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0013-4686(01)00894-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Ona-Nguema G, Abdelmoula M, Jorand F, Benali O, Géhin A, Block JC, Génin JMR. Iron(II,III) hydroxycarbonate green rust formation and stabilization from lepidocrocite bioreduction. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2002; 36:16-20. [PMID: 11811482 DOI: 10.1021/es0020456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Bioreduction of the well-crystallized ferric oxyhydroxide gamma-FeOOH lepidocrocite was investigated in batch cultures using Shewanella putrefaciens bacterium (strain CIP 8040) at initial pH 7.5 in bicarbonate buffer. The cultures were performed with formate as electron donor without phosphate, in the presence or absence of anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate (AQDS) as electron shuttle. During lepidocrocite reduction, the iron(II,III) hydroxycarbonate green rust GR(CO32-) was characterized by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and transmission Mössbauer spectroscopy. The AQDS accelerated the kinetics of GR formation. GR was the major end product when bacterial reduction was not stopped by lack of electron donor, and between 55 and 86% of the iron from gamma-FeOOH precipitated in GR(CO32-). However, when the bacterial reduction was stopped by freezing/thawing or the electron donor was exhausted, the large quantity of remaining lepidocrocite induced a transformation of GR into magnetite. This confirms that GR is metastable with respect to magnetite in the presence of gamma-FeOOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georges Ona-Nguema
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564 CNRS-Université Henri Poincaré, Nancy, France
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