Evidence for the presence of several phosphodiesterase isoforms in brown adipose tissue of Zucker rats: modulation of PDE2 by the fa gene expression

A novel thermoregulatory role for PDE10A in mouse and human adipocytes

Phosphodiesterase type 10A (PDE10A) is highly enriched in striatum and is under evaluation as a drug target for several psychiatric/neurodegenerative diseases. Preclinical studies implicate PDE10A in the regulation of energy homeostasis, but the mechanisms remain unclear. By utilizing small-animal PET/MRI and the novel radioligand [(18)F]-AQ28A, we found marked levels of PDE10A in interscapular brown adipose tissue (BAT) of mice. Pharmacological inactivation of PDE10A with the highly selective inhibitor MP-10 recruited BAT and potentiated thermogenesis in vivo In diet-induced obese mice, chronic administration of MP-10 caused weight loss associated with increased energy expenditure, browning of white adipose tissue, and improved insulin sensitivity. Analysis of human PET data further revealed marked levels of PDE10A in the supraclavicular region where brown/beige adipocytes are clustered in adults. Finally, the inhibition of PDE10A with MP-10 stimulated thermogenic gene expression in human brown adipocytes and induced browning of human white adipocytes. Collectively, our findings highlight a novel thermoregulatory role for PDE10A in mouse and human adipocytes and promote PDE10A inhibitors as promising candidates for the treatment of obesity and diabetes.

The Role of PDE3B Phosphorylation in the Inhibition of Lipolysis by Insulin

Inhibition of adipocyte lipolysis by insulin is important for whole-body energy homeostasis; its disruption has been implicated as contributing to the development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus. The main target of the antilipolytic action of insulin is believed to be phosphodiesterase 3B (PDE3B), whose phosphorylation by Akt leads to accelerated degradation of the prolipolytic second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP). To test this hypothesis genetically, brown adipocytes lacking PDE3B were examined for their regulation of lipolysis. In Pde3b knockout (KO) adipocytes, insulin was unable to suppress β-adrenergic receptor-stimulated glycerol release. Reexpressing wild-type PDE3B in KO adipocytes fully rescued the action of insulin against lipolysis. Surprisingly, a mutant form of PDE3B that ablates the major Akt phosphorylation site, murine S273, also restored the ability of insulin to suppress lipolysis. Taken together, these data suggest that phosphorylation of PDE3B by Akt is not required for insulin to suppress adipocyte lipolysis.

Temporal and spatial regulation of cAMP signaling in disease: role of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases

Since its discovery, cAMP has been proposed as one of the most versatile second messengers. The remarkable feature of cAMP to tightly control highly diverse physiological processes, including metabolism, homeostasis, secretion, muscle contraction, cell proliferation and migration, immune response, and gene transcription, is reflected by millions of different articles worldwide. Compartmentalization of cAMP in space and time, maintained by mainly phosphodiesterases, contributes to the maintenance of equilibrium inside the cell where one signal can trigger many different events. Novel cAMP sensors seem to carry out certain unexpected signaling properties of cAMP and thereby to permit delicate adaptations of biologic responses. Measuring space and time events with biosensors will increase our current knowledge on the pathophysiology of diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, cognitive impairment, cancer, and renal and heart failure. Further insights into the cAMP dynamics will help to optimize the pharmacological treatment for these diseases.

PDE3 and PDE4 isozyme-selective inhibitors are both required for synergistic activation of brown adipose tissue

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a highly thermogenic organ that converts lipids and glucose into heat. Many of the metabolic and gene transcriptional hallmarks of BAT activation, namely increased lipolysis, uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) mRNA, and glucose uptake, are regulated by the adrenergic second messenger, cAMP. Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) catalyze the breakdown of cAMP, thereby regulating the magnitude and duration of this signaling molecule. In the absence of adrenergic stimulus, we found that it required a combination of a PDE3 and a PDE4 inhibitor to fully induce UCP1 mRNA and lipolysis in brown adipocytes, whereas neither PDE inhibitor alone had any substantial effect under basal conditions. Under submaximal β-adrenoceptor stimulation of brown adipocytes, a PDE3 inhibitor alone could potentiate induction of UCP1 mRNA, whereas a PDE4 inhibitor alone could augment lipolysis, indicating differential roles for each of these two PDEs. Neither induction of UCP1 nor lipolysis was altered by inhibition of PDE1, PDE2, or PDE8A. Finally, when injected into mice, the combination of PDE3 and PDE4 inhibitors stimulated glucose uptake in BAT under thermoneutral and fasted conditions, a response that was further potentiated by the global ablation of PDE8A. Taken together, these data reveal that multiple PDEs work in concert to regulate three of the important pathways leading to BAT activation, a finding that may provide an improved conceptual basis for the development of therapies for obesity-related diseases.

Reduced in vivo phosphodiesterase-4 response to acute noradrenaline challenge in diet-induced obese rats

Altered sympathetic nervous activity has been linked to the development and persistence of obesity, partly relating to overfeeding. Binding of the selective, positron-emitting phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) inhibitor (R)-[11C]rolipram provides a direct index of the cAMP-hydrolyzing enzyme PDE4. This study examines progressive alterations in PDE4 in a high-fat-fed obese animal model. (R)-[11C]Rolipram was injected into diet-induced obese (DIO) and diet-resistant (DR) rats; the animals were killed after 45 min, tissues were extracted, and radioactivity was quantified. Responsiveness of PDE4 to acute noradrenaline (NA) stimulation was determined by 3 h pretreatment with the NA reuptake inhibitor desipramine. There was minimal variance in caloric intake, weight gain, fasting glucose, insulin, and energy expenditure (indirect calorimetry) measures. Basal (R)-[11C]rolipram binding was comparable between DIO and DR rats at 2 or 8 weeks of feeding. The normal increase of PDE4 levels in response to elevated NA by desipramine pretreatment was ablated in PDE4-rich tissues, including brain, heart, and skeletal muscle, of DIO animals after 8 weeks of high-fat diet. Lean DR rats maintained PDE4 responsiveness indicative of a normal NA signal transduction.

In vivo selective binding of (R)-[11C]rolipram to phosphodiesterase-4 provides the basis for studying intracellular cAMP signaling in the myocardium and other peripheral tissues

INTRODUCTION

Phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) enzymes specifically break down the second messenger cAMP, thereby terminating the intracellular signaling cascade that plays an essential role in neurohormonal modulation of many physiological systems. PDE4 activity and expression are regulated by cAMP levels, suggesting that measurement of PDE4 provides an index of intracellular cAMP signaling.

METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were administered (R)- or the less active enantiomer (S)-[11C]rolipram and sacrificed 30 min later with tracer retention measured in various tissues. Co-injections with saturating doses of unlabeled (R)-rolipram, (S)-rolipram and Ro 20-1724, as well as subtype-selective PDE inhibitors vinpocetine, Bay 60-7550, cilostazol and zaprinast were used to establish binding selectivity for PDE4 over PDE1, PDE2, PDE3 and PDE5 subtypes, respectively. Autoradiography was performed to substantiate results of biodistribution studies in the myocardium.

RESULTS

In vivo (R)-[11C]rolipram retention was dose-dependently reduced by co-injections of (R)-rolipram and (S)-rolipram (ED50 values of 0.03 mg/kg and 0.2 mg/kg, respectively). Vinpocetine, Bay 60-7550, cilostazol and zaprinast had no effect on (R)-[11C]rolipram binding, while (R)-rolipram and Ro 20-1724 reduced the tracer uptake to nonspecific levels in PDE4-rich tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to the brain, (R)-[11C]rolipram binds selectively to PDE4 across all cardiac regions, skeletal muscle, lungs and pancreas, but not in the adipose tissues. In vivo findings were confirmed by in vitro autoradiography studies, suggesting that (R)-[11C]rolipram can be applied to evaluate alterations in central and peripheral PDE4 levels and cAMP-mediated signaling.

Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDE) superfamily: a new target for the development of specific therapeutic agents

Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs), which are ubiquitously distributed in mammalian tissues, play a major role in cell signaling by hydrolyzing cAMP and cGMP. Due to their diversity, which allows specific distribution at cellular and subcellular levels, PDEs can selectively regulate various cellular functions. Their critical role in intracellular signaling has recently designated them as new therapeutic targets for inflammation. The PDE superfamily represents 11 gene families (PDE1 to PDE11). Each family encompasses 1 to 4 distinct genes, to give more than 20 genes in mammals encoding the more than 50 different PDE proteins probably produced in mammalian cells. Although PDE1 to PDE6 were the first well-characterized isoforms because of their predominance in various tissues and cells, their specific contribution to tissue function and their regulation in pathophysiology remain open research fields. This concerns particularly the newly discovered families, PDE7 to PDE11, for which roles are not yet established. In many pathologies, such as inflammation, neurodegeneration, and cancer, alterations in intracellular signaling related to PDE deregulation may explain the difficulties observed in the prevention and treatment of these pathologies. By inhibiting specifically the up-regulated PDE isozyme(s) with newly synthesized potent and isozyme-selective PDE inhibitors, it may be potentially possible to restore normal intracellular signaling selectively, providing therapy with reduced adverse effects.

The role of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases in the regulation of adipocyte lipolysis

This study assessed the effects of selective inhibitors of 3',5'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) on adipocyte lipolysis. IC224, a selective inhibitor of type 1 phosphodiesterase (PDE1), suppressed lipolysis in murine 3T3-L1 adipocytes (69.6 +/- 5.4% of vehicle control) but had no effect in human adipocytes. IC933, a selective inhibitor of PDE2, had no effect on lipolysis in either cultured murine 3T3-L1 adipocytes or human adipocytes. Inhibition of PDE3 with cilostamide moderately stimulated lipolysis in murine 3T3-L1 and rat adipocytes (397 +/- 25% and 235 +/- 26% of control, respectively) and markedly stimulated lipolysis in human adipocytes (932 +/- 7.6% of control). Inhibition of PDE4 with rolipram moderately stimulated lipolysis in murine 3T3-L1 adipocytes (291 +/- 13% of control) and weakly stimulated lipolysis in rat adipocytes (149 +/- 7.0% of control) but had no effect on lipolysis in human adipocytes. Cultured adipocytes also responded differently to a combination of PDE3 and PDE4 inhibitors. Simultaneous exposure to cilostamide and rolipram had a synergistic effect on lipolysis in murine 3T3-L1 and rat adipocytes but not in human adipocytes. Hence, the relative importance of PDE3 and PDE4 in regulating lipolysis differed in cultured murine, rat, and human adipocytes.

Leptin signalling

The identification of leptin as the product of the obesity (ob) gene has been followed by extensive research identifying a wide spectrum of physiological effects elicited by this adipose-derived hormone. These effects are mediated via a family of cytokine-like receptor isoforms distributed in both the central nervous system and periphery. The signal transduction pathways regulated by leptin are diverse and include those characteristic of both cytokine and growth factor receptor signalling. This review describes the structure and function of leptin receptors and summarizes recent progress that has been made in characterizing the increasing number of signal transduction pathways regulated by leptin.