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Strang J, Griffiths P, Gossop M. Heroin in the United Kingdom: different forms, different origins, and the relationship to different routes of administration. Drug Alcohol Rev 2009; 16:329-37. [PMID: 16203446 DOI: 10.1080/09595239700186711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Heroin exists in the United Kingdom in several different forms, which vary not only in their country of origin and purity, but also in their suitability for use by either injecting or by 'chasing the dragon'. The availability of these different forms of heroin has varied considerably over time. A review of the characteristics and availability of these various forms of heroin in recent years is presented, accompanied by consideration of their probable intended use by injection or by 'chasing the dragon'. Samples of black market heroin in the salt form are usually used by injection, whereas the base form is usually taken by 'chasing the dragon'. The heroin yield to the drug user from samples of heroin taken by 'chasing the dragon' varies according to its base or salt format and according to the presence of other drugs in the sample. Heroin samples from different countries of production mostly conform to either base or salt form. Novel approaches at the macro level to prevention and control of heroin-related problems through influence upon this complex heroin market-place should now be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Strang
- National Addiction Centre (The Maudsley/Institute of Psychiatry), 4 Windsor Walk, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF, UK
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2
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Santos V, López KJV, Santos LM, Yonamine M, Carmona MJC, Santos SRCJ. Determining plasma morphine levels using GC-MS after solid phase extraction to monitor drug levels in the postoperative period. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2008; 63:307-14. [PMID: 18568238 PMCID: PMC2664238 DOI: 10.1590/s1807-59322008000300004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2007] [Accepted: 01/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To implement a selective and sensitive analytical method to quantify morphine in small volumes of plasma by gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), aimed at post-operatively monitoring the drug. METHOD A gas-liquid chromatographic method with mass detection has been developed to determine morphine concentration in plasma after solid phase extraction. Morphine-d3 was used as an internal standard. Only 0.5 mL of plasma is required for the drug solid-phase extraction in the Bond Elut-Certify, followed by the quantification of morphine derivative by GC-MS using a linear temperature program, a capillary fused silica column, and helium as the carrier and make-up gas. The method was applied to determine morphine content in plasma samples of four patients during the postoperative period of cardiac surgery. Patient-controlled analgesia with morphine was performed by a venous catheter, and a series of venous blood samples were collected. After the oro-After the orotracheal extubation, morphine plasma levels were monitored for up to 36 hours. RESULTS The run time was 16 minutes because morphine and the internal standard were eluted after 8.8 minutes. The GC-MS method had 0.5 -1000 ng/mL linearity range (r(2)=0.9995), 0.1 ng/mL limit of detection, intraday and interday precision equivalent to 1.9% and 6.8%, and 0.1% and 0.8% systematic error (intraday and interday, respectively). The analytical method showed optimal absolute (98%) and relative (100.7%) recoveries. Morphine dose requirements and plasma levels are discussed. CONCLUSION The analytical gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method is selective and adequate for morphine measurements in plasma for applications in clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Santos
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade de São Paulo – São Paulo/ SP, Brazil
| | | | - Luciana Moraes Santos
- Instituto do Coração, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo – São Paulo/SP, Brazil.
| | - Mauricio Yonamine
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade de São Paulo – São Paulo/ SP, Brazil
| | - Maria José Carvalho Carmona
- Instituto do Coração, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo – São Paulo/SP, Brazil.
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Risser D, Uhl A, Oberndorfer F, Hönigschnabl S, Stichenwirth M, Hirz R, Sebald D. Is there a relationship between street heroin purity and drug-related emergencies and/or drug-related deaths? An analysis from Vienna, Austria. J Forensic Sci 2007; 52:1171-6. [PMID: 17645491 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2007.00507.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study examines the quality of street heroin seized in Vienna in 1999 and whether there was a relationship between the purity of street heroin and the number of heroin-related emergencies as well as the number of heroin-related deaths. Street heroin confiscated by the Viennese police, run-sheets of drug-related emergencies, and postmortem reports of drug-related deaths in Vienna in 1999 were analyzed. A total of 415 retail samples with a total weight of 128.02 g contained a median percentage of 6.5% diacetylmorphine (range: 0.0-47.0%). All the samples contained a diluent, mainly lactose, as well as adulterants, such as caffeine and/or paracetamol. During the study period, 75 heroin-related deaths and 387 heroin-related emergencies were registered in Vienna. Time-series analysis revealed no statistically significant relationship between the rate of heroin-related incidents and the diacetylmorphine concentration of street heroin samples confiscated in Vienna in 1999. The widely held belief that the number of heroin-related deaths could be explained simply through fluctuations in the purity of street heroin could not be substantiated, even though the results of this study do not rule out an association between the purity of heroin and heroin-related deaths/emergencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Risser
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Sensengasse 2, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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Chiarotti M, Fucci N. Comparative analysis of heroin and cocaine seizures. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AND APPLICATIONS 1999; 733:127-36. [PMID: 10572978 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(99)00240-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
In this brief review the analytical techniques mainly used for comparative analysis of both cocaine and heroin seizures are reported. The characterization of illicit samples is carried out by means of a variety of techniques including thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography and capillary electrophoresis. By means of these technique it is possible to resolve some component in illicit drugs and their application for comparative analyses is described in this review. Owing to the complexity and the variability of the mixture related to the origin and manufacturing impurities a unique analytical approach based on the application of a single technique it is not sufficient to achieve the requested global characterization of the sample for comparative purposes. Generally a complete characterization is obtained focusing on the identification of minor and major components, origin and manufacturing impurities other than trace compounds such as solvent residues. Nevertheless the application of a single robust methods able to resolve any possible significant marker compounds, is still not described and there is a need for a standardized general procedure suitable for a complete cross-examination of analytical data related to comparative analyses that can be carried out at an international level.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Chiarotti
- Istituto di Medicina Legale Universita' Cattolica, Rome, Italy
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6
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Seno H, Hattori H, Kurono S, Yamada T, Kumazawa T, Ishii A, Suzuki O. Gas chromatography with surface ionization detection: a highly sensitive method for determining underivatized codeine and dihydrocodeine in body fluids. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 1995; 673:189-95. [PMID: 8611952 DOI: 10.1016/0378-4347(95)00275-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Underivatized codeine and dihydrocodeine in human plasma and urine have been determined with a high degree of accuracy by capillary gas chromatography (GC) with surface ionization detection (SID). The drugs were extracted with the aid of Sep-Pak C18 cartridges. Recovery of both drugs was > or = 90%. The calibration curves obtained with dimemorfan as an internal standard showed linearity in the range 4.5-72.3 and 3.0-75.5 ng/ml of plasma for codeine and dihydrocodeine, respectively. The detection limit was about 100 pg on column (2.5 ng/ml sample). Codeine was determined quantitatively in plasma and urine obtained from a volunteer who had received 10 mg codeine phosphate orally 3 h before the sampling: the levels were found to be 14.1 and 142 ng/ml, respectively. The present GC-SID method has been compared carefully with GC-NPD (nitrogen-phosphorus detection) using the same extracts; the sensitivity of GC-SID was more than ten times greater than that of GC-NPD, with background noise correspondingly lower.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Seno
- Department of Legal Medicine, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Japan
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Wasels R, Belleville F. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric procedures used for the identification and determination of morphine, codeine and 6-monoacetylmorphine. J Chromatogr A 1994; 674:225-34. [PMID: 8075772 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(94)85227-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
An overview of the analysis of opiates by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is presented. The review is focused on the hydrolysis, extraction and derivatization procedures most widely used for the identification and determination by GC-MS of legal and illegal opiates in various biological fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Wasels
- Laboratory of Biochemistry B, University Hospital Centre of Nancy, France
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8
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The Application of Capillary Gas Chromatography-Electron Capture Detection in the Comparative Analyses of Illicit Cocaine Samples. J Forensic Sci 1993. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13535j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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9
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A Chromatographic Impurity Signature Profile Analysis for Cocaine Using Capillary Gas Chromatography. J Forensic Sci 1991. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs13154j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Abstract
The comparative analysis of street heroin samples is still an object of scientific discussion. A combination of a wide range of analytical techniques is necessary to obtain a valid amount of information about the sample composition, and it is impossible to define an unique analytical approach. We suggest a complete analytical sequence based on analysis of volatile compounds, opiates, diluents, adulterants and metals, by head space gas chromatography (HS/GC), gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS), thin layer chromatography (TLC), high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and atomic absorption (AA) using a sample amount as low as 50-100 mg. The outlined procedure can be successfully applied to routine work, thus obtaining suitable information about a sample's chemical composition. This helps to attribute or exclude common sources of separate specimens. Results obtained on 33 street heroin samples confiscated in the metropolitan area of Rome are listed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Chiarotti
- Istituto di Medicina Legale-Università, Cattolica del Sacro Cuore di Roma, Italy
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Abstract
A method for the routine profiling of illicit heroin samples received in casework has been developed which depends on simple and straightforward sample pretreatment, followed by gas chromatography on a capillary column using flame-ionization detection. The factors affecting the choice of each aspect of the procedure are discussed, as are the statistical data for sampling and the chromatography. Components of illicit heroin derived from opium and other adulterants have been identified. The significance of data from samples examined in 1986 is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Barnfield
- Home Office Forensic Science Laboratory, Birmingham, U.K
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13
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Analytical Profile of Morphine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/s0099-5428(08)60222-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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de la Torre R, Ortuño J, Cami J, Segura J. Comprehensive gas chromatographic analysis of heroin street samples. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1988; 6:813-9. [PMID: 16867348 DOI: 10.1016/0731-7085(88)80096-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/1987] [Revised: 11/26/1987] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A comprehensive analytical approach for heroin street samples is faced with problems associated with differences in polarity, stability and physico-chemical properties of the various substances present. Difficulties with carbohydrates are of particular concern. In this method, which is suitable for screening purposes, 10 mg of sample is dissolved in acetonitrile-trifluoroacetic acid in the presence of methyl orange. Derivatization is then accomplished by O-silylation (MSTFA) and N-trifluoroacetylation (MBTFA). Compounds were detected by flame ionization after a capillary gas chromatographic separation and produced well shaped peaks for the majority of substances. Sugars gave multiple but reproducible chromatographic peaks. By direct derivatization of another aliquot of the solid sample a single predominant chromatographic peak can be obtained for sugars using MSTFA with MBTFA. Alternatively the more potent reagent MSHFB gives highly reproducible results.
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Affiliation(s)
- R de la Torre
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institut Municipal d'Investigació Mèdica, Passeig Marítim 25-29, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
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Lurie IS, Carr SM. The Quantitation of Heroin and Selected Basic Impurities Via Reversed Phase HPLC. I. The Analysis of Unadulterated Heroin Samples. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986. [DOI: 10.1080/01483918608076880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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16
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Milovanović GA, Trifković L, Janjić TJ. Kinetic determination of codeine in pharmaceutical preparations. Mikrochim Acta 1986. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01199271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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17
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Illicitly Imported Heroin Products: Some Physical and Chemical Features Indicative of Their Origin. J Forensic Sci 1984. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs11750j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Renzi NL, Stellar SM, Ng KT. Gas chromatographic assay of codeine in human plasma utilizing nitrogen-selective detection. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1983; 278:179-84. [PMID: 6662878 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)84771-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Gloger M, Neumann H. [Analysis of heroin samples with capillary gas chromatography. Comparison of glass capillary column and packed column]. Forensic Sci Int 1983; 22:63-74. [PMID: 6618359 DOI: 10.1016/0379-0738(83)90120-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
In forensic examination of illicit heroin samples high-resolution capillary gas chromatography is compared with gas chromatography with packed columns. Separation efficiency, reproducibility of qualitative and quantitative determinations and stability of the columns are examined. A practical method with silylation of the samples is presented which allows safe identification and quantification of many various compounds contained in illicit heroin samples. The gas chromatographic data of 35 substances (opium alkaloids and synthetic derivatives, adulterants and diluents) are listed. The method also allows the quantification of morphine, opium, and cocaine samples.
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Chiarotti M, Carnevale A, de Giovanni N. Capillary gas chromatographic analysis of illicit diamorphine preparations. Forensic Sci Int 1983; 21:245-51. [PMID: 6873780 DOI: 10.1016/0379-0738(83)90129-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
An improved capillary gas chromatographic method for the analysis of illicit diamorphine preparation is reported. The method was able to resolve the impurities and more frequent adulterants and contaminants present in street heroin preparations with a diamorphine detection limit of 0.2 ng in split-less mode.
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Moore JM. Detection of selected heroin manufacturing impurities using fused-silica capillary and electron capture—gas chromatography. J Chromatogr A 1983. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)87899-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Chapter 13 Biomedical applications of the electron-capture detector. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/s0301-4770(08)60137-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Heroin. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/s0099-5428(08)60645-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2023]
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Poochikian GK, Cradock JC. Simple high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the separation of 3,6-diacetylmorphine hydrochloride (heroin) and hydrolysis products. J Chromatogr A 1979; 171:371-6. [PMID: 44709 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)95317-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The application of reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography to the measurement of 3,6-diacetylmorphine (DAM) hydrochloride and its degradation products is described. This method has been applied to study the kinetics of the DAM hydrolysis at 26 +/- 0.1 degrees and 48 +/- 0.1 degrees. The hydrolysis of DAM involved a two-step first-order sequential mechanism between pH 3 and 8.6. The first-order rate constants of each step at all pH levels have been determined. The pH rate profile was constructed from kinetic measurements and demonstrated that stability of DAM hydrochloride solutions was optimal at pH 4.3. This information is being applied to the development of parenteral dosage forms of DAM hydrochloride.
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Sanger DG, Humphreys IJ, Joyce JR. A review of analytical techniques for the comparison and characterization of illicit drugs. JOURNAL - FORENSIC SCIENCE SOCIETY 1979; 19:65-71. [PMID: 469500 DOI: 10.1016/s0015-7368(79)71253-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Moore JM, Klein M. Identification of O3-monoacetylmorphine in illicit heroin using gas chromatography-electron-capture detection and mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 1978; 154:76-83. [PMID: 670368 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(00)88483-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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