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Liu CM, Liu XY, Du Y, Hua ZD. Discrimination of opium from Afghanistan and Myanmar by infrared spectroscopy coupled with machine learning methods. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 357:111974. [PMID: 38447346 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.111974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Afghanistan and Myanmar are two overwhelming opium production places. In this study, rapid and efficient methods for distinguishing opium from Afghanistan and Myanmar were developed using infrared spectroscopy (IR) coupled with multiple machine learning (ML) methods for the first time. A total of 146 authentic opium samples were analyzed by mid-IR (MIR) and near-IR (NIR), within them 116 were used for model training and 30 were used for model validation. Six ML methods, including partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), orthogonal PLS-DA (OPLS-DA), k-nearest neighbour (KNN), support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), and artificial neural networks (ANNs) were constructed and compared to get the best classification effect. For MIR data, the average of precision, recall and f1-score for all classification models were 1.0. For NIR data, the average of precision, recall and f1-score for different classification models ranged from 0.90 to 0.94. The comparison results of six ML models for MIR and NIR data showed that MIR was more suitable for opium geography classification. Compared with traditional chromatography and mass spectrometry profiling methods, the advantages of MIR are simple, rapid, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly. The developed IR chemical profiling methodology may find wide application in classification of opium from Afghanistan and Myanmar, and also to differentiate them from opium originating from other opium producing countries. This study presented new insights into the application of IR and ML to rapid drug profiling analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui-Mei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, P.R.C., Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Xue-Yan Liu
- China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing Jiangsu 210009, China
| | - Yu Du
- China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing Jiangsu 210009, China
| | - Zhen-Dong Hua
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, P.R.C., Beijing 100193, China
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Liu C, Hua Z, Bai Y. Classification of Opium by UPLC-Q-TOF Analysis of Principal and Minor Alkaloids. J Forensic Sci 2016; 61:1615-1621. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cuimei Liu
- National Narcotics Laboratory; Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center of the Ministry of Public Security; Beijing 100193 China
| | - Zhendong Hua
- National Narcotics Laboratory; Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center of the Ministry of Public Security; Beijing 100193 China
| | - Yanping Bai
- National Narcotics Laboratory; Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center of the Ministry of Public Security; Beijing 100193 China
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Forbes TP, Najarro M. Ion mobility spectrometry nuisance alarm threshold analysis for illicit narcotics based on environmental background and a ROC-curve approach. Analyst 2016; 141:4438-46. [PMID: 27206280 PMCID: PMC5054301 DOI: 10.1039/c6an00844e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The discriminative potential of an ion mobility spectrometer (IMS) for trace detection of illicit narcotics relative to environmental background was investigated with a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve framework. The IMS response of cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and Δ(9)-tetrahydro-cannabinol (THC) was evaluated against environmental background levels derived from the screening of incoming delivery vehicles at a federal facility. Over 20 000 samples were collected over a multiyear period under two distinct sets of instrument operating conditions, a baseline mode and an increased desorption/drift tube temperature and sampling time mode. ROC curves provided a quantifiable representation of the interplay between sensitivity (true positive rate, TPR) and specificity (1 - false positive rate, FPR). A TPR of 90% and minimized FPR were targeted as the detection limits of IMS for the selected narcotics. MDMA, THC, and cocaine demonstrated single nanogram sensitivity at 90% TPR and <10% FPR, with improvements to both MDMA and cocaine in the elevated temperature/increased sampling mode. Detection limits in the tens of nanograms with poor specificity (FPR ≈ 20%) were observed for methamphetamine and heroin under baseline conditions. However, elevating the temperature reduced the background in the methamphetamine window, drastically improving its response (90% TPR and 3.8% FPR at 1 ng). On the contrary, the altered mode conditions increased the level of background for THC and heroin, partially offsetting observed enhancements to desorption. The presented framework demonstrated the significant effect environmental background distributions have on sensitivity and specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas P Forbes
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Materials Measurement Science Division, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.
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Liuni P, Romanov V, Binette MJ, Zaknoun H, Tam M, Pilon P, Hendrikse J, Wilson DJ. Unambiguous Characterization of Analytical Markers in Complex, Seized Opiate Samples Using an Enhanced Ion Mobility Trace Detector-Mass Spectrometer. Anal Chem 2014; 86:10772-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac502676d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Liuni
- Department
of Chemistry, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Vladimir Romanov
- Smiths Detection,
Inc., 7030 Century Avenue, Mississauga, Ontario L5N 2V8, Canada
| | - Marie-Josée Binette
- Canada Border
Services Agency, 79 Bentley Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario K2E 6T7, Canada
| | - Hafid Zaknoun
- Canada Border
Services Agency, 79 Bentley Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario K2E 6T7, Canada
| | - Maggie Tam
- Canada Border
Services Agency, 79 Bentley Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario K2E 6T7, Canada
| | - Pierre Pilon
- Canada Border
Services Agency, 79 Bentley Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario K2E 6T7, Canada
| | - Jan Hendrikse
- Smiths Detection,
Inc., 7030 Century Avenue, Mississauga, Ontario L5N 2V8, Canada
| | - Derek J. Wilson
- Department
of Chemistry, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
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Reid RG, Durham DG, Boyle SP, Low AS, Wangboonskul J. Differentiation of opium and poppy straw using capillary electrophoresis and pattern recognition techniques. Anal Chim Acta 2007; 605:20-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2007.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2007] [Revised: 10/11/2007] [Accepted: 10/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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6
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Thénot JP, Haegele KD. Analysis of morphine and related analgesics by gas phase methods. METHODS OF BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS 2006; 24:1-38. [PMID: 22023 DOI: 10.1002/9780470110447.ch1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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7
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Pasteur GA. Quantitative determination of stabilizers in tetraethylene glycol dimethacrylate by high-pressure liquid chromatography. Anal Chem 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/ac50011a010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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8
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Analytical Profile of Papaverine Hydrochloride. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/s0099-5428(08)60223-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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9
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Analytical Profile of Morphine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/s0099-5428(08)60222-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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10
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Neumann H. Analysis of opium and crude morphine samples by capillary gas chromatography. Comparison of impurity profiles. J Chromatogr A 1984; 315:404-11. [PMID: 6526907 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)90760-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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12
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Jensen KM. Determination of noscapine in serum by high-performance liquid chromatography. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1983; 274:381-7. [PMID: 6874845 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)84448-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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13
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Bersier PM. Application of polarography and voltammetry to drug analysis in industry. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1983; 1:475-90. [PMID: 16867786 DOI: 10.1016/0731-7085(83)80061-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/1983] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P M Bersier
- Ciba-Geigy, AG, Basel, Werk Rosental, R.1055.3.54, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
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Schwartz R, Benjamin C. Voltammetric determination of morphine in poppy straw concentrate at a glassy carbon electrode. Anal Chim Acta 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(01)95342-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Cone EJ, Gorodetzky CW, Yeh SY, Darwin WD, Buchwald WF. Detection and measurement of opium alkaloids and metabolites in urine of opium eaters by methane chemical ionization mass fragmentography. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 1982; 230:57-67. [PMID: 7107768 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)81430-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
A gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric assay for eight opium alkaloids in human urine following opium ingestion is described. The compounds were extracted from urine with methylene chloride-isopropanol (7:3, v/v) at pH 9.5, evaporated, derivatized with Tri-Sil Z and analyzed by methane chemical ionization mass fragmentography. The method in sensitive to ca. 0.01 microgram/ml for morphine and codeine and ca. 0.05 microgram/ml for the other compounds. Adsorption problems on the gas chromatography column prevented obtaining reproducible results for the measurement of noscapine. Extraction efficiencies over the pH range of 8-11 for the eight compounds are reported. Retention times of the opium alkaloids were determined using five different liquid phases (3%) on Gas-Chrom Q (100-120 mesh) and two column lengths (36 cm and 183 cm). The 36-cm column packed with OV-210 was selected for use in the assay. Ions were selected for monitoring for each component from their methane chemical ionization spectrum to provide the needed sensitivity and specificity for analysis of a multi-component mixture. The assay was used for the analysis of an "opium eater's" urine. Morphine, codeine, nomorphine, norcodeine and noscapine were detected; however, no evidence was obtained for thebaine, papaverine or oripavine. Unconjugated morphine (0.64 microgram/ml) was present at nearly twice the concentration of codeine (0.37 microgram/ml) and normorphine and norcodeine were present in equal amounts (ca. 0.15 microgram/ml).
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Wu FF, Dobberstein RH. Quantitative determination of thebaine in Papaver bracteatum by high-pressure liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 1977; 140:65-70. [PMID: 893633 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(00)83602-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A method is described for the quantitative analysis of thebaine from Papaver bracteatum, using a single high-pressure liquid chromatographic column. The procedure gives base-line separation of thebaine without the need for gradient elution equipment, and can be completed within 12 min. Thebaine isolated by this technique was shown to be pure, regardless of the age of plant or plant part from which it was obtained.
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18
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Wu CY, Wittick JJ. Separation of five major alkaloids in gum opium and quantitation of morphine, codeine, and thebaine by isocratic reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography. Anal Chem 1977; 49:359-63. [PMID: 842847 DOI: 10.1021/ac50011a009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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