Staging systems of lung cancer

Outcome of treatment in patients with small cell lung cancer in poor performance status

Background: Patients with small cell lung cancer (SCLC) with poor performance status (PS) especially in the elderly may not benefit from chemotherapy. The aim of this study was to compare survival of treated patients with PS 3-4 with untreated patients.Material and methods: We reviewed the medical records and pathology data for 448 patients diagnosed with small cell carcinoma from 2010 to 2015 and selected all patients in PS 3-4 for review.Results: A total of 87 patients fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Of these, 53 (61%) received chemotherapy (CT), while 34 (39%) did not. The median overall survival (OS) was 5.1 months for the treated patients and 0.7 month for the untreated (p < .001). Multivariate analysis identified lack of treatment with chemotherapy, extensive disease, and PS 4 as independent factors associated with poor prognosis, while age and gender were not. Also, patients with aged ≥70 years who had extended disease had significant improved OS when treated with CT. However, the chance of being treated with CT was significantly influenced by age.Conclusion: CT was associated with improved survival in patients with SCLC with PS 3-4 independent of age and stage of disease. Neither ED, high age, nor poor PS should be used as criteria for omitting CT.

A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials comparing early and late concurrent thoracic radiotherapy with etoposide and cisplatin/carboplatin chemotherapy for limited-disease small-cell lung cancer

The aim of the present study was to determine the optimal time for concurrent thoracic radiotherapy (TRT) with etoposide and cisplatin/carboplatin (EP/EC) chemotherapy for the treatment of limited-disease small-cell lung cancer (LD SCLC). Randomized controlled trials comparing early and late concurrent TRT with EP/EC chemotherapy for the treatment of patients with LD SCLC were identified through searching databases such as MEDLINE, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and Embase. Early thoracic radiotherapy (ERT) was defined as initiating irradiation within 30 days after chemotherapy initiation. A total of 3 eligible randomized controlled trials were identified. No significant differences in the objective response rate were detected between early and late concurrent TRT [risk ratio (RR)=1.01; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.86-1.18; P=0.90]. Similar results were observed in the 1-, 2-, 3- and 5-year survival rates between early and late concurrent TRT (RR=1.06, 95% CI: 0.88-1.27, P=0.56; RR=1.15, 95% CI: 0.77-1.71, P=0.49; RR=0.90, 95% CI: 0.66-1.22, P=0.49; and RR=1.18, 95% CI: 0.64-2.16, P=0.60, respectively). The total incidence of grade 3-4 adverse events, including anemia, leukopenia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, nausea and vomiting, infection, esophageal toxicity, pulmonary toxicity, alopecia and hemorrhage with early concurrent TRT was significantly higher compared to that with late concurrent TRT (RR=1.21, 95% CI: 1.03-1.43, P=0.02). Thus, the results of our study indicated that the prognosis of LD SCLC treated with late concurrent TRT and EP/EC chemotherapy is similar to that with early concurrent TRT, although the incidence of grade 3-4 adverse events was lower in LD SCLC patients treated with late concurrent TRT combined with EP/EC chemotherapy.

Duration of chemotherapy for small cell lung cancer: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Maintenance chemotherapy is widely provided to patients with small cell lung cancer (SCLC). However, the benefits of maintenance chemotherapy compared with observation are a subject of debate.

METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

To identify relevant literature, we systematically searched the Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases. Eligible trials included patients with SCLC who either received maintenance chemotherapy (administered according to a continuous or switch strategy) or underwent observation. The primary outcome was 1-year mortality, and secondary outcomes were 2-year mortality, overall survival (OS), and progression-free survival (PFS). Of the 665 studies found in our search, we identified 14 relevant trials, which together reported data on 1806 patients with SCLC. When compared with observation, maintenance chemotherapy had no effect on 1-year mortality (odds ratio [OR]: 0.88; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.66-1.19; P = 0.414), 2-year mortality (OR: 0.82; 95% CI: 0.57-1.19; P = 0.302), OS (hazard ratio [HR]: 0.87; 95% CI: 0.71-1.06; P = 0.172), or PFS (HR: 0.87; 95% CI: 0.62-1.22; P = 0.432). However, subgroup analyses indicated that maintenance chemotherapy was associated with significantly longer PFS than observation in patients with extensive SCLC (HR, 0.72; 95% CI: 0.58-0.89; P = 0.003). Additionally, patients who were managed using the continuous strategy of maintenance chemotherapy appeared to be at a disadvantage in terms of PFS compared with patients who only underwent observation (HR, 1.27; 95% CI: 1.04-1.54; P = 0.018).

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Maintenance chemotherapy failed to improve survival outcomes in patients with SCLC. However, a significant advantage in terms of PFS was observed for maintenance chemotherapy in patients with extensive disease. Additionally, our results suggest that the continuous strategy is inferior to observation; its clinical value needs to be investigated in additional trials.

Medical treatment of small cell lung cancer: state of the art and new development

INTRODUCTION

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is a rapidly progressive disease that accounts for approximately 15% of all lung cancers. Chemotherapy remains the cornerstone of treatment of SCLC, but in the last two decades, its progress has reached a plateau. Although a significant sensitivity to chemotherapy and radiotherapy is a feature of SCLC, an early development of drug resistance unavoidable occurs during the course of the disease. Second-line treatment for relapsed patients remains a very challenging setting, with a limited clinical benefit.

AREAS COVERED

A thorough analysis of various therapeutic strategies reported in literature for SCLC treatment was performed. This review includes novel therapeutic approaches such as maintenance or consolidation treatments, new chemotherapy agents and targeted therapy.

EXPERT OPINION

Against this background, there is a desperate need for the development of novel active drugs. Among these, amrubicin has also shown more favourable antitumor activity, and is the most promising at present. Concerning targeted agents, these have failed to demonstrate effectiveness for SCLC and a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms is clearly needed. In the future, further investigations are required to clarify the role of novel anti-angiogenic or pro-apoptotic agents and hedgehog pathway inhibitors.

Targeted therapies in small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) accounted for 12.95% of all lung cancer histological types in 2002. Despite trends toward modest improvement in survival, the outcome remains extremely poor. Chemotherapy is the cornerstone of treatment in SCLC. More than two-thirds of patients who succumb to lung cancer in the United States are over 65 years old. Elderly patients tolerate chemotherapy poorly and need novel therapeutic agents. Targeted drugs have less toxicity than chemotherapy drugs, but no targeted agents have been approved for use in the treatment of SCLC patients to date. Certain new targeted agents, including gefitinib, bevacizumab and Bcl-2 inhibitors, offer a promise of improved outcomes, however negative results are more commonly reported than positive. This review focuses on targeted therapies in SCLC.

Small-cell lung cancer: state-of-the-art treatment

SUMMARY Small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) accounts for approximately 15% of all new lung cancer diagnoses. The therapeutic approach is based according to the two-stage classification: limited-stage (LS) and extensive-stage (ES) disease. In LS-SCLC, concomitant radiochemotherapy, followed in nonprogressing patients by prophylactic cranial irradiation, is the standard of care. In ES-SCLC, chemotherapy is the cornerstone treatment, followed in patients who do not progress by prophylactic cranial irradiation. Platinum/etoposide is the regimen that has been used in both stages since the 1980s. This review focuses on the current state-of-the-art treatment of LS- and ES-SCLC and on specific questions that can be addressed to improve their outcomes, and looks at possible future developments.

Subcarinal node is the significant node that affects survival in resected small cell lung cancer

PURPOSE

Our aim was to clarify the significance of surgery and the prognostic factors in patients with small cell lung cancer (SCLC).

METHOD

A retrospective review of 50 patients with limited SCLC who underwent a pulmonary resection and mediastinal nodal dissection during the 10-year period from 1988 to 1997 was undertaken. The TNM classification was applied to all cases of SCLC.

RESULTS

A Cox regression multivariate analysis indicated lymph node metastasis (P = 0.0117) and adjuvant therapy (P = 0.0429) to be independent prognostic factors in SCLC patients. Concerning the patients with lymph node metastasis, the prognosis was related only to the involvement of the subcarinal node (station 7). Although no patient with lymph node involvement in station 7 could be a 2-year survivor, in the case of patients with lymph node involvement except in station 7, 47.1% of them were 2-year survivors and 25.1% were 4-year survivors. Among the patients with lymph node metastasis, a univariate analysis indicated the prognosis to be significantly poorer in patients with station 7 involvement than in those without station 7 involvement (P = 0.0224).

CONCLUSION

Involvement in the subcarinal node might be a prognostic factor for SCLC.

Treatment of Small Cell Lung Cancer in the Elderly

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) accounts for approximately 20% of lung carcinomas. Chemotherapy is the cornerstone of treatment for SCLC. In limited disease, the median survival time is about 12-16 months, with a 4%-5% long-term survival rate; in extensive disease the median survival time is 7-11 months. More than 50% of lung cancer patients are diagnosed when they are over the age of 65, and about 30% are over 70. Elderly patients tolerate chemotherapy poorly compared with their younger counterparts, because of age-related progressive reductions in organ function and comorbidities. The standard therapy for limited disease is combined chemoradiotherapy, followed by prophylactic brain irradiation for patients achieving complete responses. In the elderly, the addition of radiotherapy to chemotherapy must be carefully evaluated, considering the slight survival benefit and potential for substantial toxicity incurred with this treatment. The best approach is to design clinical trials that specifically include geriatric assessment to develop active and well-tolerated chemotherapy regimens for elderly SCLC patients. Survival improvement for SCLC patients requires a better understanding of tumor biology and the subsequent development of novel therapeutic strategies. Several targeted agents have been introduced into clinical trials in SCLC, but a minority of these new agents offers a promise of improved outcomes, and negative results are reported more commonly than positive ones. This review focuses on the main issues in the treatment of elderly SCLC patients.

The role of new targeted therapies in small-cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is the leading world-wide cause of cancer death. Small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) accounts for 20-25% of lung carcinomas. Chemotherapy is the cornerstone of treatment of SCLC. In limited disease, median survival is about 12-16 months with 4-5% of long-term survivors, in extensive disease median survival is 7-11 months. Improving the survival rate of patients with SCLC requires a better understanding of tumour biology and the subsequent development of novel therapeutic strategies. Several targeted agents have been introduced into clinical trials in SCLC and some phase III studies have already produced definitive results. Currently, the minority of these new agents offers a promise of improved outcomes, and negative results are more commonly reported than positive ones. To date, no targeted therapy has been approved for use in the treatment of patients with SCLC. This review will focus on the main novel biologic agents investigated in the treatment of SCLC.

Management of small-cell lung cancer in the elderly

More than 50% of lung cancer patients are diagnosed over the age of 65 and about 30% over 70. Small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) accounts for 20-25% of lung carcinomas. Chemotherapy is the cornerstone of treatment for SCLC. Usually in the elderly it is difficult to administer the same chemotherapy administered to younger patients because elderly patients tolerate chemotherapy poorly. The empirical reduction of drug doses may be criticized. The best approach is to design specific trials in order to develop active and well-tolerated chemotherapy regimens for SCLC elderly patients. The standard therapy in limited disease is combined chemo-radiotherapy followed by prophylactic brain irradiation for patients achieving a complete response. In the elderly, the addition of radiotherapy to chemotherapy must be accurately evaluated, considering the slight survival improvement and the potential relevant toxicity.

Defining the population, treatments, and outcomes of interest: reconciling the rules of biology with meaningfulness

Population characteristics, treatment needs, therapeutic interventions, and outcomes are inextricably linked. To appreciate the treatment needs and outcomes of populations served by rehabilitation medicine, it is essential to understand how specific conditions impair mental and physical functioning, given the environments within which people choose to live. States of the mind and body combine with the characteristics of the man-made and natural world and the social infrastructure to yield disabilities and, thus, shape the demand for rehabilitation services. The 1997 draft of ICIDH-2: International Classification of Impairments, Activities, and Participation (ICIDH-2) is described as an approach to population definition and outcome assessment. A new and evolving model referred to as the spheres of human-environmental integration (HEI) is applied to expressing the nonlinear and overlapping relationships among the ICIDH-2 dimensions. HEI is defined as the individual's potential for meaningful physical and mental activity as determined by physical and mental capabilities in relationship to the man-made and natural worlds, social expectations, and available resources. HEI can be expanded by reducing disabilities through medical and rehabilitation interventions and by eliminating environmental barriers. This dual approach implies a need to integrate rehabilitation sciences with the principles of independent living, which view disablement as a function of the environment. The ICIDH-2 dimensions combined with HEI are used to define populations and to study the mechanisms and effects of alternative treatments through various techniques of case-mix measurement, disability staging, and utility assessment.

Pathological Examination and the Reporting of Lung Cancer Specimens

The Lung Cancer Disease Site Group (DSG) of the Cancer Care Ontario Practice Guidelines Initiative first met in January of 1994. Included in the membership were three pathologists who, with the other members of the DSG, felt that a useful contribution to the work of the group would be a recommendation on standardized examination and reporting of lung cancer specimens. This review summarizes the consensus of the Lung Cancer DSG pathologists based on their review of the literature and proposes a standard synoptic report, the Primary Lung Cancer Check-Off Sheet. If generally adopted, this standard would improve the quality of reporting of clinical and pathological stage information. Such high-quality staging information is essential to define patient populations for clinical trials and for outcome analyses.

Evaluation of the TN sub-staging in patients with initially unresectable stage III non-small cell lung cancer treated by induction chemotherapy. The European Lung Cancer Working Party

PURPOSE

This study attempted to investigate, in a cohort of patients with clinical stage III initially unresectable non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treated by the same induction chemotherapy regimen, the prognostic value of clinical T and N sub-groupings in order to validate the current International Staging System (ISS).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

All the eligible patients with stage III NSCLC (428 patients) registered in a clinical trial were included in the study investigating, after three courses of induction chemotherapy, the role, in responders, of chest irradiation in comparison to further chemotherapy. The chemotherapy regimen consisted of mitomycin C, ifosfamide and cisplatin.

RESULTS

Patients with ISS 1986 stage IIIA had a significantly better survival than those with stage IIIB (median survival 47 vs 36 weeks; P = 0.01). A RECPAM analysis showed that patients with T1-T2 N3 and T4 N0-1-2 stage had a more similar prognosis to those with stage IIIA. That result leads to define two new sub-groups: stage IIIlalpha (T3-T4 N0-N1; any T N2; T1-T2 N3) and IIIbeta (T3-T4 N3), with a highly significant difference in survival between them (median survival: 45 vs 29 weeks; P < 0.0001). The superiority of that new classification on the ISS documented in our series of stage III patients for discriminating survival and tumour response has to be confirmed on another series in a multivariate context.

CONCLUSION

For unresectable NSCLC treated by induction chemotherapy, stage III sub-classification by moving T4 N0-1 and T1-2 N3 tumours from stage IIIB to stage IIIA appeared to better correlate with prognosis. The usefulness of this new sub-division has to be tested in validation studies.

Correlations between mitotic and apoptotic indices, number of interphase NORs, and histological grading in squamous cell lung cancer

Proliferative activity of tumors is strongly associated with prognosis and response to therapy. The reason for faster and uncontrolled growth rate of tumors compared with normal tissue may be caused by the greater proliferation of cells, the smaller rate of cell death, or both. Cell production vs. cell loss rates, and their correlation with a grade of tumor cell differentiation (G) was estimated in 45 cases of squamous cell lung cancers (SCLC) by the use of mitotic indices (MI), number of interphase NORs, and apoptotic indices (AI) as parameters. The mitotic figures as well as apoptotic cells were observed on paraffin sections (4-microm thick) stained with haematoxylin and eosin, and with Feulgen reaction with Schiff-type reagent containing 0.5% Toluidine Blue. According to our results, all three parameters distinguish significantly (P < 0.05) between well and moderately or poorly differentiated groups, but not between the first two groups, and clearly discriminate between low- and high-grade malignancy. These results suggest classification of squamous cell lung cancers into two groups, a group of low and a group of high proliferative activity, despite their morphological appearance. Regression analysis revealed a significant (P < 0.0005) correlation between MI and AgNOR counts per cell nucleus as proliferative markers and AI as a marker of cell loss. The number of mitoses and apoptoses, especially when they are expressed as a percentage of the total number of tumor cells, are markers of tumor proliferation rate. They both can be used in biofunctional staging, based on cell kinetics, to provide more prognostic information about lung cancers than clinicopathological staging.

Metabolism in patients with small cell lung carcinoma compared with patients with non-small cell lung carcinoma and healthy controls

BACKGROUND

Weight loss is a frequently occurring problem in patients with lung cancer due to an increased resting energy expenditure (REE) and a decreased energy intake. The aim of the present study was to compare the metabolic and inflammatory characteristics of patients with small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) and non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). The metabolic parameters of the lung cancer population were compared with those of a healthy control group.

METHODS

REE was measured in 66 patients with lung cancer, subdivided according to their histology, and in 33 healthy controls matched for sex, age, and fat free mass (FFM). Inflammatory mediators were measured in the plasma of the patients with lung cancer.

RESULTS

An increased REE adjusted for FFM was found in the patients with lung cancer. Those with small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) had an increased REE adjusted for FFM (mean 1925 kcal/day) compared with those with non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) (mean 1789 kcal/day, 95% CI for difference 36 to 236). FFM accounted for 69% and 48% of the inter-individual variation in REE in controls and those with NSCLC, respectively, while FFM accounted for only 25% of the variation in REE in patients with SCLC in whom the fat mass (FM) also contributed significantly (28%) to the variation in REE. Increased concentrations of soluble TNF-receptor 75 (sTNF-R75) and cortisol were found in patients with SCLC compared with those with NSCLC. Lipopolyasccharide binding protein (LBP) and sTNF-R55 were related to plasma levels of cortisol.

CONCLUSION

An enhanced REE adjusted for FFM occurred in patients with SCLC compared with those with NSCLC.

The effects of treatment with chemotherapy on energy metabolism and inflammatory mediators in small-cell lung carcinoma

A disturbed energy balance has been demonstrated in lung cancer patients. Both an enhanced resting energy expenditure (REE) and a decreased energy intake contribute to weight loss. Enhanced systemic levels of inflammatory mediators were found to be related to the enhanced REE in lung cancer. The aim of the present study was to investigate energy metabolism and systemic levels of inflammatory mediators in small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) patients before and after treatment with chemotherapy. Hypermetabolism and an enhanced inflammatory response have already been demonstrated in SCLC by our group before. Twelve newly diagnosed SCLC patients were consecutively included in the study. REE was measured by indirect calorimetry and body composition was determined by bioelectrical impedance (BIA) before and 1 month after treatment. To assess the inflammatory state the acute-phase proteins, C-reactive protein (CRP) and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), both soluble tumour necrosis factor (TNF) receptors, (sTNF-R)-55 and sTNF-R75, and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule (sICAM)-1 were measured in plasma before and 1 month after treatment. CRP was assessed by turbidemetry, whereas the other inflammatory parameters were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A significant reduction in REE was found irrespective of therapeutic outcome, whereas body weight and body composition remained stable. The acute-phase proteins CRP and LBP were reduced significantly after treatment with chemotherapy, whereas both sTNF receptors and sICAM-1 remained enhanced. No correlation, however, existed between the decrease in REE and the decrease in the acute-phase proteins. In conclusion, chemotherapeutic treatment attenuates the tumour-related metabolic derangements and acute-phase response.

Current treatment of unresectable lung cancer

The treatment of choice for most cases of non-small-cell lung cancer is surgical resection; however, which patients with stage IIIA disease are surgical candidates is debatable. For many patients with stage IIIA or IIIB disease, the preferred modality is thoracic radiotherapy. In several randomized prospective trials, the addition of chemotherapy to thoracic radiotherapy produced a significant but clinically small survival advantage over radiotherapy alone. For patients with stage IV lung cancer, no curative treatment or "standard therapy" is available. Accordingly, many patients are offered investigational agents in phase I or II clinical trials. Small-cell lung cancer has a 60 to 90% rate of initial response to available chemotherapeutic agents. Patients with limited disease are generally given combination chemotherapy and thoracic radiotherapy, approximately 50% of whom have a complete clinical remission. Patients with extensive disease (spread beyond one radiation port) also have a high rate of initial response to chemotherapy, but only 20 to 40% have a complete remission and few survive for 5 years. New agents are being tested in previously untreated patients with extensive small-cell lung cancer. Promising new chemotherapeutic agents for lung cancer are being studied in clinical trials. Currently, only 1% of patients with lung cancer in the United States are enrolled in prospective clinical trials. Primary-care physicians are urged to encourage their patients to consider participation in approved prospective clinical trials at reputable medical centers, in an effort to discover new, effective agents with novel mechanisms of action. Information about such studies is available through Physician Desk Query (PDQ) or the cancer hotline (1-800-4-CANCER).