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Ungogo MA, de Koning HP. Drug resistance in animal trypanosomiases: Epidemiology, mechanisms and control strategies. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2024; 25:100533. [PMID: 38555795 PMCID: PMC10990905 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2024.100533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Animal trypanosomiasis (AT) is a complex of veterinary diseases known under various names such as nagana, surra, dourine and mal de caderas, depending on the country, the infecting trypanosome species and the host. AT is caused by parasites of the genus Trypanosoma, and the main species infecting domesticated animals are T. brucei brucei, T. b. rhodesiense, T. congolense, T. simiae, T. vivax, T. evansi and T. equiperdum. AT transmission, again depending on species, is through tsetse flies or common Stomoxys and tabanid flies or through copulation. Therefore, the geographical spread of all forms of AT together is not restricted to the habitat of a single vector like the tsetse fly and currently includes almost all of Africa, and most of South America and Asia. The disease is a threat to millions of companion and farm animals in these regions, creating a financial burden in the billions of dollars to developing economies as well as serious impacts on livestock rearing and food production. Despite the scale of these impacts, control of AT is neglected and under-resourced, with diagnosis and treatments being woefully inadequate and not improving for decades. As a result, neither the incidence of the disease, nor the effectiveness of treatment is documented in most endemic countries, although it is clear that there are serious issues of resistance to the few old drugs that are available. In this review we particularly look at the drugs, their application to the various forms of AT, and their mechanisms of action and resistance. We also discuss the spread of veterinary trypanocide resistance and its drivers, and highlight current and future strategies to combat it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzuq A Ungogo
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Harry P de Koning
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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Bernhard S, Kaiser M, Burri C, Mäser P. Fexinidazole for Human African Trypanosomiasis, the Fruit of a Successful Public-Private Partnership. Diseases 2022; 10:90. [PMID: 36278589 PMCID: PMC9589988 DOI: 10.3390/diseases10040090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 08/14/2023] Open
Abstract
After 100 years of chemotherapy with impractical and toxic drugs, an oral cure for human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is available: Fexinidazole. In this case, we review the history of drug discovery for HAT with special emphasis on the discovery, pre-clinical development, and operational challenges of the clinical trials of fexinidazole. The screening of the Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi) HAT-library by the Swiss TPH had singled out fexinidazole, originally developed by Hoechst (now Sanofi), as the most promising of a series of over 800 nitroimidazoles and related molecules. In cell culture, fexinidazole has an IC50 of around 1 µM against Trypanosoma brucei and is more than 100-fold less toxic to mammalian cells. In the mouse model, fexinidazole cures both the first, haemolymphatic, and the second, meningoencephalitic stage of the infection, the latter at 100 mg/kg twice daily for 5 days. In patients, the clinical trials managed by DNDi and supported by Swiss TPH mainly conducted in the Democratic Republic of the Congo demonstrated that oral fexinidazole is safe and effective for use against first- and early second-stage sleeping sickness. Based on the positive opinion issued by the European Medicines Agency in 2018, the WHO has released new interim guidelines for the treatment of HAT including fexinidazole as the new therapy for first-stage and non-severe second-stage sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (gHAT). This greatly facilitates the diagnosis and treatment algorithm for gHAT, increasing the attainable coverage and paving the way towards the envisaged goal of zero transmission by 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Bernhard
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Burri
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
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Meyer KJ, Meyers DJ, Shapiro TA. Optimal kinetic exposures for classic and candidate antitrypanosomals. J Antimicrob Chemother 2020; 74:2303-2310. [PMID: 31093674 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkz160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Efficacy is determined not only by size, but also by shape, of drug exposure. Here the critical importance of the temporal pattern of drug concentrations (pharmacokinetic profile) is examined for antitrypanosomals in vitro. METHODS An in vitro hollow-fibre cartridge system was used to study contrasting drug profiles with four clinically used agents and two experimental candidates against the deadly parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Artificial kinetics were employed intentionally to favour either high peak concentration or sustained duration of drug. RESULTS Changing the shape of drug exposure significantly impacted drug efficacy. Suramin, melarsoprol and pentamidine were concentration-driven and therefore more efficacious when applied as short-lived high peaks. In contrast, difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) was time-driven, and therefore maximally effective as a constant infusion. Kinetic preference was robust over a wide range of drug exposures. Promising clinical candidates SCYX-7158 (acoziborole) and fexinidazole (parent and sulfone) were concentration-driven, suggesting optimal clinical regimens would involve relatively high but intermittent dosing. CONCLUSIONS Antitrypanosomals have an intrinsic pharmacokinetic driver for optimal efficacy, with important implications for clinical management and future candidate development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten J Meyer
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David J Meyers
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Theresa A Shapiro
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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P De Koning H. The Drugs of Sleeping Sickness: Their Mechanisms of Action and Resistance, and a Brief History. Trop Med Infect Dis 2020; 5:E14. [PMID: 31963784 PMCID: PMC7157662 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed5010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
With the incidence of sleeping sickness in decline and genuine progress being made towards the WHO goal of eliminating sleeping sickness as a major public health concern, this is a good moment to evaluate the drugs that 'got the job done': their development, their limitations and the resistance that the parasites developed against them. This retrospective looks back on the remarkable story of chemotherapy against trypanosomiasis, a story that goes back to the very origins and conception of chemotherapy in the first years of the 20 century and is still not finished today.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry P De Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
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Bray PG, Barrett MP, Ward SA, de Koning HP. Pentamidine uptake and resistance in pathogenic protozoa: past, present and future. Trends Parasitol 2003; 19:232-9. [PMID: 12763430 DOI: 10.1016/s1471-4922(03)00069-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Diamidines, and pentamidine in particular, have a long history as valuable chemotherapeutic agents against infectious disease. Their selectivity is due mostly to selective accumulation by the pathogen, rather than the host cell; and acquired resistance is frequently the result of changes in transmembrane transport of the drug. Here, recent progress in elucidating the mechanisms of diamidine transport in three important protozoan pathogens, Trypanosoma brucei, Leishmania and Plasmodium falciparum, is reviewed, and the implications for drug resistance are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick G Bray
- Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, L3 5QS, UK
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Wéry M. Drug used in the treatment of sleeping sickness (human African trypanosomiasis: HAT). Int J Antimicrob Agents 1994; 4:227-38. [DOI: 10.1016/0924-8579(94)90012-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/04/1994] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- J Pépin
- Service des Maladies Infectieuses, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada
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Yarlett N, Goldberg B, Nathan HC, Garofalo J, Bacchi CJ. Differential sensitivity of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense isolates to in vitro lysis by arsenicals. Exp Parasitol 1991; 72:205-15. [PMID: 1849084 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4894(91)90138-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Clinical isolates of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, which were resistant to arsenical drugs in murine infections, were examined for resistance in vitro. A rapid lysis assay was developed which was able to predict in vivo sensitivity to melarsoprol (Mel B, Arsobal) and melarsen oxide. The assay was based on the finding that long slender bloodforms of drug-sensitive isolates would lyse in the presence of arsenicals upon incubation in heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum. On the basis of plots of decrease in the absorbance of trypanosome suspensions vs time of incubation with drug, L50 values, reflecting the drug concentration necessary for lysis of 50% of the cells within 30 min. were calculated for five strains. These values ranged from less than 30 microM for arsenical-sensitive strains to greater than 75 microM in proven arsenic refractory isolates. Calcium was essential for lysis, and the presence of the Ca2+ chelator EGTA (10 mM) in serum delayed lysis of sensitive strains. Ca2+ channel antagonists (Verapamil, Diltiazem), however, did not enhance lysis of refractory isolates when used at 20 to 30 microM. Intracellular concentrations of reduced trypanothione, the apparent target of arsenicals, were similar for all isolates, approximately 1.02 +/- 0.28 nmol/10(8) cells, as detected by monobromobimane derivitization and HPLC analysis. Uptake of melarsen oxide was found to be reduced in arsenical refractory strains. Uptake was judged by reduction of free reduced trypanothione as a result of formation of the trypanothione-arsenic complex Mel T. Little change was found in arsenical-resistant strains, but sensitive strains had 50 to 70% reductions in trypanothione levels after incubation with a low (1 microM) level of melarsen oxide.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Yarlett
- Haskins Laboratories, New York, New York 10038
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Dukes P. Arsenic and old taxa: subspeciation and drug sensitivity in Trypanosoma brucei. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1984; 78:711-25. [PMID: 6241967 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(84)90002-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance to the trypanocidal drugs atoxyl and tryparsamide was traditionally considered to be a diagnostic feature of rhodesian sleeping sickness and, consequently, of Trypanosoma rhodesiense. In examining the tryparsamide sensitivity of 13 isoenzymically defined stocks of the subgenus Trypanozoon, typical West African stocks showed no greater drug sensitivity than did those of East and Central Africa. The greatest resistance to tryparsamide was shown by two stocks isolated in the Ivory Coast. There was no evidence of strain differences in drug sensitivity to melarsoprol (Mel B) among 26 tested populations; none the less, differential melarsoprol sensitivity was evident in clones from a single mixed population. By contrast, isoenzymically defined West African stocks appeared to be less sensitive to pentamidine and diminazene aceturate (Berenil) than were typical East African stocks. Drug sensitivity was measured in a novel in vivo test designed to minimize the influence of host-parasite interactions, in particular trypanosome penetration of drug-inaccessible sites and host-antibody induced remission of parasitaemia. Drug effect was expressed as the DS0.1, the dose required to suppress parasitaemia to 0.1% of that in untreated control mice.
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GALL D. The chemoprophylaxis of sleeping sickness with the diamidines. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 1954; 48:242-58. [PMID: 13208153 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1954.11685622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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GELFAND M, ALVES WD. Three early cases of Rhodesian sleeping sickness treated with pentamidine isethionate. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1954; 48:146-9. [PMID: 13157160 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(54)90007-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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DUGGAN AJ, HUTCHINSON MP. The efficacy of certain trypanocidal compounds against Trypanosoma gambiense infection in man. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1951; 44:535-44. [PMID: 14835792 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(51)90033-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Harding R, Hutchinson M. Mass prophylaxis against sleeping sickness in Sierra Leone: Final report. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1950. [DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(50)90020-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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The Second Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Chadwick Lecture. Observations on trypanosomissis in the Belgian Congo. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1947. [DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(47)90034-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Van Hoof L, Lewillon R, Henrard C, Peel E, Rodjestvensky B. A field experiment on the prophylactic value of pentamidine in sleeping sickness. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1946; 39:327-9. [DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(46)90044-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Harding R. Late results of treatment of sleeping sickness in Sierra Leone by antrypol tryparsamide pentamidine and propamidine singly and in various combinations. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1945; 39:99-124. [DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(45)90002-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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