A beta and perlecan in rat brain: glial activation, gradual clearance and limited neurotoxicity

Amyloid oligomers exacerbate tau pathology in a mouse model of tauopathy

BACKGROUND

We aimed to investigate the influence of oligomeric forms of β-amyloid (Aβ) and the influence of the duration of exposure on the development of tau phosphorylation.

METHODS

Aβ oligomers were injected intracranially either acutely into 5-month-old rTg4510 mice and tissue was collected 3 days later, or chronically into 3-month-old mice and tissue was collected 2 months later. Several forms of phosphorylated tau (p-tau), GSK3 (glycogen synthase kinase-3) and microglial and astrocyte activation were measured.

RESULTS

Acute injections of Aβ oligomers had no effect on p-tau epitopes but did result in elevation of phosphorylated/activated GSK3 (pGSK3). Chronic infusion of Aβ oligomers into the right hippocampus resulted in 3- to 4-fold elevations in several p-tau isoforms with no changes in total tau levels. A significant elevation in pGSK3 accompanied these changes. Microglial staining with CD68 paralleled the increase in tau phosphorylation, however, CD45 staining was unaffected by Aβ. Control experiments revealed that the infusion of Aβ from the minipumps was largely complete by 10 days after implantation. Thus, the elevation in p-tau 2 months after implantation implies that the changes are quite persistent.

CONCLUSION

Soluble Aβ(1-42) oligomers have long-lasting effects on tau phosphorylation in the rTg4510 model, possibly due to elevations in GSK3. These data suggest that even brief elevations in Aβ production, may have enduring impact on the risk for tauopathy.

Interactions between amyloid-β and hemoglobin: implications for amyloid plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease

Accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides in the brain is one of the central pathogenic events in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, why and how Aβ aggregates within the brain of AD patients remains elusive. Previously, we demonstrated hemoglobin (Hb) binds to Aβ and co-localizes with the plaque and vascular amyloid deposits in post-mortem AD brains. In this study, we further characterize the interactions between Hb and Aβ in vitro and in vivo and report the following observations: 1) the binding of Hb to Aβ required iron-containing heme; 2) other heme-containing proteins, such as myoglobin and cytochrome C, also bound to Aβ; 3) hemin-induced cytotoxicity was reduced in neuroblastoma cells by low levels of Aβ; 4) Hb was detected in neurons and glial cells of post-mortem AD brains and was up-regulated in aging and APP/PS1 transgenic mice; 5) microinjection of human Hb into the dorsal hippocampi of the APP/PS1 transgenic mice induced the formation of an envelope-like structure composed of Aβ surrounding the Hb droplets. Our results reveal an enhanced endogenous expression of Hb in aging brain cells, probably serving as a compensatory mechanism against hypoxia. In addition, Aβ binds to Hb and other hemoproteins via the iron-containing heme moiety, thereby reducing Hb/heme/iron-induced cytotoxicity. As some of the brain Hb could be derived from the peripheral circulation due to a compromised blood-brain barrier frequently observed in aged and AD brains, our work also suggests the genesis of some plaques may be a consequence of sustained amyloid accretion at sites of vascular injury.

Behavioural and cellular effects of exogenous amyloid-β peptides in rodents

A better understanding of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the development of disease modifying therapies are some of the biggest challenges of the 21st century. One of the core features of AD are amyloid plaques composed of amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides. The first hypothesis proposed that cognitive deficits are linked to plaque-development and transgenic mice have been generated to study this link, thereby providing a good model to develop new therapeutic approaches. Since later it was recognised that in AD patients the cognitive deficit is rather correlated to soluble amyloid levels, consequently, a new hypothesis appeared associating the earliest amyloid toxicity to these soluble species. The purpose of this review is to give a summary of behavioural and cellular data obtained after soluble Aβ peptide administration into rodents' brain, thereby showing that this model is a valid tool to investigate AD pathology when no plaques are present. Additionally, this method offers an excellent, efficient model to test compounds which could act at such early stages of the disease.

Centella asiatica extract selectively decreases amyloid beta levels in hippocampus of Alzheimer's disease animal model

PSAPP mice expressing the 'Swedish' amyloid precursor protein and the M146L presenilin 1 mutations are a well-characterized model for spontaneous amyloid beta plaque formation. Centella asiatica has a long history of use in India as a memory enhancing drug in Ayurvedic literature. The study investigated whether Centella asiatica extract (CaE) can alter the amyloid pathology in PSAPP mice by administering CaE (2.5 or 5.0 g/kg/day) starting at 2 months of age prior to the onset of detectable amyloid deposition and continued for either 2 months or 8 months. A significant decrease in amyloid beta 1-40 and 1-42 was detectable by ELISA following an 8 month treatment with 2.5 mg/kg of CaE. A reduction in Congo Red stained fibrillar amyloid plaques was detected with the 5.0 mg/kg CaE dose and long-term treatment regimen. It was also confirmed that CaE functions as an antioxidant in vitro, scavenging free radicals, reducing lipid peroxidation and protecting against DNA damage. The data indicate that CaE can impact the amyloid cascade altering amyloid beta pathology in the brains of PSAPP mice and modulating components of the oxidative stress response that has been implicated in the neurodegenerative changes that occur with Alzheimer's disease.

The amyloid paradox: amyloid-beta-metal complexes can be neurotoxic and neuroprotective

Senile plaques in the brains of people with Alzheimer disease (AD) are primarily composed of the amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide and contain substantially elevated levels of iron, copper and zinc. These metals bind to Abeta and have been reported to increase the toxicity of Abeta to cultured neurones. Other reports have demonstrated that Abeta can reduce the neurotoxicity of metal ions, suggesting that the interaction can, under some circumstances, be protective. To investigate these apparently conflicting results, human Abeta1-42 was co-injected with iron, copper or zinc (at the concentrations found in plaques) into rat cerebral cortex, and the resulting numbers of dying neurones were compared. It was found that Abeta complexed with either iron or zinc was more toxic than Abeta alone. In contrast, Abeta-copper complexes were not neurotoxic. Surprisingly, we observed that when iron or copper were combined with Abeta, the neurotoxicity of these metals was substantially reduced, suggesting that Abeta may help to limit the toxicity of redox-active metal ions, thereby assisting the antioxidant defence of the brain. Thus paradoxical effects occur when Abeta complexes with metal ions, where Abeta-metal complexes are capable of being neurotoxic and neuroprotective.

Amyloid-beta: a chameleon walking in two worlds: a review of the trophic and toxic properties of amyloid-beta

Although much maligned, the amyloid-beta (Abeta) protein has been shown to possess a number of trophic properties that emanate from the protein's ability to bind Cu, Fe and Zn. Abeta belongs to a group of proteins that capture redox metal ions (even under mildly acidotic conditions), thereby preventing them from participating in redox cycling with other ligands. The coordination of Cu appears to be crucial for Abeta's own antioxidant activity that has been demonstrated both in vitro as well as in the brain, cerebrospinal fluid and plasma. The chelation of Cu by Abeta would therefore be predicted to dampen oxidative stress in the mildly acidotic and oxidative environment that accompanies acute brain trauma and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Given that oxidative stress promotes Abeta generation, the formation of diffuse amyloid plaques is likely to be a compensatory response to remove reactive oxygen species. This review weighs up the evidence supporting both the trophic and toxic properties of Abeta, and while evidence for direct Abeta neurotoxicity in vivo is scarce, we postulate that the product of Abeta's antioxidant activity, hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), is likely to mediate toxicity as the levels of this oxidant rise with the accumulation of Abeta in the AD brain. We propose that metal ion chelators, antioxidants, antiinflammatories and amyloid-lowering drugs that target the reduction of H(2)O(2) and/or Abeta generation may be efficacious in decreasing neurotoxicity. However, given the antioxidant activity of Abeta, we suggest that the excessive removal of Abeta may prevent adequate chelation of metal ions and removal of O(2)(-z.ccirf;), leading to enhanced, rather than reduced, neuronal oxidative stress.

Human Abeta1-42 reduces iron-induced toxicity in rat cerebral cortex

Senile plaques, the major neuropathological lesions of Alzheimer's disease (AD), are composed primarily of amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide and contain high concentrations of iron (1.0 mM). We have previously shown that intracortical injections of 1.0 mM iron to adult rats produce significantly more neuronal loss than control injections of saline vehicle, whereas injections of Abeta do not. Because iron has been shown to increase the in vitro toxicity of Abeta, the present study was undertaken to determine whether iron can make Abeta neurotoxic in vivo. Abeta and 1.0 mM iron (as ferric ammonium citrate) were coinjected into rat cerebral cortex, and the neuronal loss was compared with that produced by pure Abeta or pure iron. The human and rat variants of Abeta(1-42) were compared to determine whether they produce the same amount of neuronal loss when combined with iron. Coinjection of iron with either Abeta variant caused significantly more neuronal loss than Abeta peptide alone, suggesting that iron may contribute to the toxicity associated with senile plaques. Rat Abeta(1-42) combined with iron was as toxic as iron alone, whereas iron combined with human Abeta(1-42) was significantly less toxic. This latter finding indicates that fibrillar human Abeta is able to reduce iron-induced neurotoxicity in vivo and raises the interesting possibility that senile plaques in AD may represent a neuroprotective response to the presence of elevated metal ions.

Abeta as a bioflocculant: implications for the amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease

Research into Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been guided by the view that deposits of fibrillar amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) are neurotoxic and are largely responsible for the neurodegeneration that accompanies the disease. This 'amyloid hypothesis' has claimed support from a wide range of molecular, genetic and animal studies. We critically review these observations and highlight inconsistencies between the predictions of the amyloid hypothesis and the published data. We show that the data provide equal support for a 'bioflocculant hypothesis', which posits that Abeta is normally produced to bind neurotoxic solutes (such as metal ions), while the precipitation of Abeta into plaques may be an efficient means of presenting these toxins to phagocytes. We conclude that if the deposition of Abeta represents a physiological response to injury then therapeutic treatments aimed at reducing the availability of Abeta may hasten the disease process and associated cognitive decline in AD.

Laminin affects polymerization, depolymerization and neurotoxicity of Abeta peptide

Amyloid deposition in Alzheimer fibrils forms neurotoxic senile plaques in a process that may be modulated by associated proteins. In this work we demonstrate the ability of laminin-1 and laminin-2 to inhibit fibril formation and toxicity on cultured rat hippocampal neurons. We confirm that the laminin-1-derived peptide YFQRYLI inhibits efficiently both fibril formation and neurotoxicity and show that the IKVAV peptide inhibits amyloid neurotoxicity despite its slight inhibition of fibril formation. On other hand, laminin-1 induces disaggregation of preformed fibrils in vitro, characterized as a progressive disassembly of fibrils into protofibrils and further clearance of these latter species, leading to a continual inhibition of amyloid neurotoxicity.

Microglial activation and beta -amyloid deposit reduction caused by a nitric oxide-releasing nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug in amyloid precursor protein plus presenilin-1 transgenic mice

3-4-(2-Fluoro-alpha-methyl-[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-acetyloxy)-3-methoxyphenyl]-2-propenoic acid 4-nitrooxy butyl ester (NCX-2216), a nitric oxide (NO)-releasing derivative of the cyclooxygenase-1-preferring nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) flurbiprofen, dramatically reduced both beta-amyloid (Abeta) loads and Congo red staining in doubly transgenic (Tg) amyloid precursor protein plus presenilin-1 mice when administered at 375 ppm in diet between 7 and 12 months of age. This reduction was associated with a dramatic increase in the number of microglia expressing major histocompatibility complex-II antigen, a marker for microglial activation. In contrast, ibuprofen at 375 ppm in diet caused modest reductions in Abeta load but not Congo red staining, suggesting that the effects of this nonselective NSAID were restricted primarily to nonfibrillar deposits. We detected no effects of the cyclooxygenase-2-selective NSAID celecoxib at 175 ppm on amyloid deposition. In short-term studies of 12-month-old Tg mice, we found that the microglia-activating properties of NCX-2216 (7.5 mg small middle dot kg(-1) small middle dot d(-1), s.c.) were present after 2 weeks of treatment. Microglia were not activated by NCX-2216 in non-Tg mice lacking Abeta deposits, nor were microglia activated in Tg animals by flurbiprofen (5 mg small middle dot kg(-1) small middle dot d(-1)) alone. These data are consistent with the argument that activated microglia can clear Abeta deposits. We conclude that the NO-generating component of NCX-2216 confers biological actions that go beyond those of typical NSAIDs. In conclusion, NCX-2216 is more efficacious than ibuprofen or celecoxib in clearing Abeta deposits from the brains of Tg mice, implying potential benefit in the treatment of Alzheimer's dementia.