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Wang HC, Zhang QX, Zhao J, Wei NN. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations studies on the protective and pathogenic roles of the amyloid-β peptide between herpesvirus infection and Alzheimer's disease. J Mol Graph Model 2022; 113:108143. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2022.108143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Lopes RR, Tomé CS, Russo R, Paterna R, Leandro J, Candeias NR, Gonçalves LMD, Teixeira M, Sousa PMF, Guedes RC, Vicente JB, Gois PMP, Leandro P. Modulation of Human Phenylalanine Hydroxylase by 3-Hydroxyquinolin-2(1H)-One Derivatives. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11030462. [PMID: 33808760 PMCID: PMC8003416 DOI: 10.3390/biom11030462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disease caused by deficient activity of human phenylalanine hydroxylase (hPAH) that, when untreated, can lead to severe psychomotor impairment. Protein misfolding is recognized as the main underlying pathogenic mechanism of PKU. Therefore, the use of stabilizers of protein structure and/or activity is an attractive therapeutic strategy for this condition. Here, we report that 3-hydroxyquinolin-2(1H)-one derivatives can act as protectors of hPAH enzyme activity. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy demonstrated that the 3-hydroxyquinolin-2(1H)-one compounds affect the coordination of the non-heme ferric center at the enzyme active-site. Moreover, surface plasmon resonance studies showed that these stabilizing compounds can be outcompeted by the natural substrate l-phenylalanine. Two of the designed compounds functionally stabilized hPAH by maintaining protein activity. This effect was observed on the recombinant purified protein and in a cellular model. Besides interacting with the catalytic iron, one of the compounds also binds to the N-terminal regulatory domain, although to a different location from the allosteric l-Phe binding site, as supported by the solution structures obtained by small-angle X-ray scattering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel R. Lopes
- Research Institute for Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.R.L.); (C.S.T.); (R.R.); (R.P.); (J.L.); (L.M.D.G.); (R.C.G.)
| | - Catarina S. Tomé
- Research Institute for Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.R.L.); (C.S.T.); (R.R.); (R.P.); (J.L.); (L.M.D.G.); (R.C.G.)
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal;
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Quinta do Marquês, 2780-155 Oeiras, Portugal;
| | - Roberto Russo
- Research Institute for Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.R.L.); (C.S.T.); (R.R.); (R.P.); (J.L.); (L.M.D.G.); (R.C.G.)
| | - Roberta Paterna
- Research Institute for Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.R.L.); (C.S.T.); (R.R.); (R.P.); (J.L.); (L.M.D.G.); (R.C.G.)
| | - João Leandro
- Research Institute for Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.R.L.); (C.S.T.); (R.R.); (R.P.); (J.L.); (L.M.D.G.); (R.C.G.)
| | - Nuno R. Candeias
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, Korkeakoulunkatu 8, 33101 Tampere, Finland;
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Lídia M. D. Gonçalves
- Research Institute for Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.R.L.); (C.S.T.); (R.R.); (R.P.); (J.L.); (L.M.D.G.); (R.C.G.)
| | - Miguel Teixeira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal;
| | - Pedro M. F. Sousa
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Quinta do Marquês, 2780-155 Oeiras, Portugal;
| | - Rita C. Guedes
- Research Institute for Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.R.L.); (C.S.T.); (R.R.); (R.P.); (J.L.); (L.M.D.G.); (R.C.G.)
| | - João B. Vicente
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal;
- Correspondence: (J.B.V.); (P.M.P.G.); (P.L.); Tel.: +351-217946400 (P.L.)
| | - Pedro M. P. Gois
- Research Institute for Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.R.L.); (C.S.T.); (R.R.); (R.P.); (J.L.); (L.M.D.G.); (R.C.G.)
- Correspondence: (J.B.V.); (P.M.P.G.); (P.L.); Tel.: +351-217946400 (P.L.)
| | - Paula Leandro
- Research Institute for Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.R.L.); (C.S.T.); (R.R.); (R.P.); (J.L.); (L.M.D.G.); (R.C.G.)
- Correspondence: (J.B.V.); (P.M.P.G.); (P.L.); Tel.: +351-217946400 (P.L.)
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Tischer A, Machha VR, Moon-Tasson L, Auton M. Platelet-type von Willebrand disease: Local disorder of the platelet GPIbα β-switch drives high-affinity binding to von Willebrand factor. J Thromb Haemost 2019; 17:2022-2034. [PMID: 31448872 DOI: 10.1111/jth.14597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in the β-switch of GPIbα cause gain-of-function in the platelet-type von Willebrand disease. Structures of free and A1-bound GPIbα suggest that the β-switch undergoes a conformational change from a coil to a β-hairpin. OBJECTIVES Platelet-type von Willebrand disease (VWD) mutations have been proposed to stabilize the β-switch by shifting the equilibrium in favor of the β-hairpin, a hypothesis predicated on the assumption that the complex crystal structure between A1 and GPIbα is the high-affinity state. METHODS Hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry is employed to test this hypothesis using G233V, M239V, G233V/M239V, W230L, and D235Y disease variants of GPIbα. If true, the expectation is a decrease in hydrogen-deuterium exchange within the β-switch as a result of newly formed hydrogen bonds between the β-strands of the β-hairpin. RESULTS Hydrogen-exchange is enhanced, indicating that the β-switch favors the disordered loop conformation. Hydrogen-exchange is corroborated by differential scanning calorimetry, which confirms that these mutations destabilize GPIbα by allowing the β-switch to dissociate from the leucine-rich-repeat (LRR) domain. The stability of GPIbα and its A1 binding affinity, determined by surface plasmon resonance, are correlated to the extent of hydrogen exchange in the β-switch. CONCLUSION These studies demonstrate that GPIbα with a disordered loop is binding-competent and support a mechanism in which local disorder in the β-switch exposes the LRR-domain of GPIbα enabling high-affinity interactions with the A1 domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Tischer
- Division of Hematology, Departments of Internal Medicine and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Venkata R Machha
- Division of Hematology, Departments of Internal Medicine and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Laurie Moon-Tasson
- Division of Hematology, Departments of Internal Medicine and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Matthew Auton
- Division of Hematology, Departments of Internal Medicine and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
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Evidence for the Misfolding of the A1 Domain within Multimeric von Willebrand Factor in Type 2 von Willebrand Disease. J Mol Biol 2019; 432:305-323. [PMID: 31628947 PMCID: PMC7028320 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Von Willebrand factor (VWF), an exceptionally large multimeric plasma glycoprotein, functions to initiate coagulation by agglutinating platelets in the blood stream to sites of vascular injury. This primary hemostatic function is perturbed in type 2 dysfunctional subtypes of von Willebrand disease (VWD) by mutations that alter the structure and function of the platelet GPIbα adhesive VWF A1 domains. The resulting amino acid substitutions cause local disorder and misfold the native structure of the isolated platelet GPIbα-adhesive A1 domain of VWF in both gain-of-function (type 2B) and loss-of-function (type 2M) phenotypes. These structural effects have not been explicitly observed in A1 domains of VWF multimers native to blood plasma. New mass spectrometry strategies are applied to resolve the structural effects of 2B and 2M mutations in VWF to verify the presence of A1 domain structural disorder in multimeric VWF harboring type 2 VWD mutations. Limited trypsinolysis mass spectrometry (LTMS) and hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HXMS) are applied to wild-type and VWD variants of the single A1, A2, and A3 domains, an A1A2A3 tridomain fragment of VWF, plasmin-cleaved dimers of VWF, multimeric recombinant VWF, and normal VWF plasma concentrates. Comparatively, these methods show that mutations known to misfold the isolated A1 domain increase the rate of trypsinolysis and the extent of hydrogen-deuterium exchange in local secondary structures of A1 within multimeric VWF. VWD mutation effects are localized to the A1 domain without appreciably affecting the structure and dynamics of other VWF domains. The intrinsic dynamics of A1 observed in recombinant fragments of VWF are conserved in plasma-derived VWF. These studies reveal that structural disorder does occur in VWD variants of the A1 domain within multimeric VWF and provides strong support for VWF misfolding as a result of some, but not all, type 2 VWD variants.
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Maillard RA, Liu T, Beasley DWC, Barrett ADT, Hilser VJ, Lee JC. Thermodynamic mechanism for the evasion of antibody neutralization in flaviviruses. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:10315-24. [PMID: 24950171 PMCID: PMC4111217 DOI: 10.1021/ja503318x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Mutations
in the epitopes of antigenic proteins can confer viral
resistance to antibody-mediated neutralization. However, the fundamental
properties that characterize epitope residues and how mutations affect
antibody binding to alter virus susceptibility to neutralization remain
largely unknown. To address these questions, we used an ensemble-based
algorithm to characterize the effects of mutations on the thermodynamics
of protein conformational fluctuations. We applied this method to
the envelope protein domain III (ED3) of two medically important flaviviruses:
West Nile and dengue 2. We determined an intimate relationship between
the susceptibility of a residue to thermodynamic perturbations and
epitope location. This relationship allows the successful identification
of the primary epitopes in each ED3, despite their high sequence and
structural similarity. Mutations that allow the ED3 to evade detection
by the antibody either increase or decrease conformational fluctuations
of the epitopes through local effects or long-range interactions.
Spatially distant interactions originate in the redistribution of
conformations of the ED3 ensembles, not through a mechanically connected
array of contiguous amino acids. These results reconcile previous
observations of evasion of neutralization by mutations at a distance
from the epitopes. Finally, we established a quantitative correlation
between subtle changes in the conformational fluctuations of the epitope
and large defects in antibody binding affinity. This correlation suggests
that mutations that allow viral growth, while reducing neutralization,
do not generate significant structural changes and underscores the
importance of protein fluctuations and long-range interactions in
the mechanism of antibody-mediated neutralization resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo A Maillard
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, ‡Department of Microbiology & Immunology, §Department of Pathology, ∥Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, ⊥Institute for Human Infections and Immunity and #Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, The University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
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Abstract
Protein structures under normal conditions exist as ensembles of interconverting, transient microstates. A computer algorithm known as COREX/BEST (Biology using Ensemble-based Structural Thermodynamics) was developed to model microstate structures and describe the native ensembles of proteins in statistical thermodynamic terms. This algorithm has been tested extensively and validated through experimental comparisons examining a range of biophysical and functional phenomena, such as structural cooperativity, pH-dependent stability, and cold denaturation. Here, we describe a Web-based implementation of the COREX/BEST algorithm, called the COREX/BEST Server, and demonstrate how to use this online resource to characterize the structural and thermodynamic properties of the native protein ensemble.
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Wrabl JO, Gu J, Liu T, Schrank TP, Whitten ST, Hilser VJ. The role of protein conformational fluctuations in allostery, function, and evolution. Biophys Chem 2011; 159:129-41. [PMID: 21684672 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2011.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Revised: 05/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It is now well-known that proteins exist at equilibrium as ensembles of conformational states rather than as unique static structures. Here we review from an ensemble perspective important biological effects of such spontaneous fluctuations on protein allostery, function, and evolution. However, rather than present a thorough literature review on each subject, we focus instead on connecting these phenomena through the ensemble-based experimental, theoretical, and computational investigations from our laboratory over the past decade. Special emphasis is given to insights that run counter to some of the prevailing ideas that have emerged over the past 40 years of structural biology research. For instance, when proteins are viewed as conformational ensembles rather than as single structures, the commonly held notion of an allosteric pathway as an obligate series of individual structural distortions loses its meaning. Instead, allostery can result from energetic linkage between distal sites as one Boltzmann distribution of states transitions to another. Additionally, the emerging principles from this ensemble view of proteins have proven surprisingly useful in describing the role of intrinsic disorder in inter-domain communication, functional adaptation mediated by mutational control of fluctuations, and evolutionary conservation of the energetics of protein stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- James O Wrabl
- Departments of Biology and Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA.
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Abstract
The active sites of enzymes are lined with side chains whose dynamic, geometric, and chemical properties have been finely tuned relative to the corresponding residues in water. For example, the carboxylates of glutamate and aspartate are weakly basic in water but become strongly basic when dehydrated in enzymatic sites. The dehydration of the carboxylate, although intrinsically thermodynamically unfavorable, is achieved by harnessing the free energy of folding and substrate binding to reach the required basicity. Allosterically regulated enzymes additionally rely on the free energy of ligand binding to stabilize the protein in a catalytically competent state. We demonstrate the interplay of protein folding energetics and functional group tuning to convert calmodulin (CaM), a regulatory binding protein, into AlleyCat, an allosterically controlled eliminase. Upon binding Ca(II), native CaM opens a hydrophobic pocket on each of its domains. We computationally identified a mutant that (i) accommodates carboxylate as a general base within these pockets, (ii) interacts productively in the Michaelis complex with the substrate, and (iii) stabilizes the transition state for the reaction. Remarkably, a single mutation of an apolar residue at the bottom of an otherwise hydrophobic cavity confers catalytic activity on calmodulin. AlleyCat showed the expected pH-rate profile, and it was inactivated by mutation of its active site Glu to Gln. A variety of control mutants demonstrated the specificity of the design. The activity of this minimal 75-residue allosterically regulated catalyst is similar to that obtained using more elaborate computational approaches to redesign complex enzymes to catalyze the Kemp elimination reaction.
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Lau WL, Degrado WF, Roder H. The effects of pK(a) tuning on the thermodynamics and kinetics of folding: design of a solvent-shielded carboxylate pair at the a-position of a coiled-coil. Biophys J 2011; 99:2299-308. [PMID: 20923665 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2010.07.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2010] [Revised: 07/26/2010] [Accepted: 07/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The tuning of the pK(a) of ionizable residues plays a critical role in various protein functions, such as ligand-binding, catalysis, and allostery. Proteins harness the free energy of folding to position ionizable groups in highly specific environments that strongly affect their pK(a) values. To investigate the interplay among protein folding kinetics, thermodynamics, and pK(a) modulation, we introduced a pair of Asp residues at neighboring interior positions of a coiled-coil. A single Asp residue was replaced for an Asn side chain at the a-position of the coiled-coil from GCN4, which was also crosslinked at the C-terminus via a flexible disulfide bond. The thermodynamic and kinetic stability of the system was measured by circular dichroism and stopped-flow fluorescence as a function of pH and concentration of guanidine HCl. Both sets of data are consistent with a two-state equilibrium between fully folded and unfolded forms. Distinct pK(a) values of 6.3 and 5.35 are assigned to the first and second protonation of the Asp pair; together they represent an energetic difference of 5 kcal/mol relative to the protonation of two Asp residues with unperturbed pK(a) values. Analysis of the rate data as a function of pH and denaturant concentration allowed calculation of the kinetic constants for the conformational transitions of the peptide with the Asp residues in the doubly protonated, singly protonated, and unprotonated forms. The doubly and singly protonated forms fold rapidly, and a ϕ-value analysis shows that their contribution to folding occurs subsequent to the transition state ensemble for folding. By contrast, the doubly charged state shows a reduced rate of folding and a ϕ-value near 0.5 indicative of a repulsive interaction, and possibly also heterogeneity in the transition state ensemble.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai Leung Lau
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Vasileiou C, Wang W, Jia X, Lee KSS, Watson CT, Geiger JH, Borhan B. Elucidating the exact role of engineered CRABPII residues for the formation of a retinal protonated Schiff base. Proteins 2010; 77:812-22. [PMID: 19603486 DOI: 10.1002/prot.22495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Cellular Retinoic Acid Binding Protein II (CRABPII) has been reengineered to specifically bind and react with all-trans-retinal to form a protonated Schiff base. Each step of this process has been dissected and four residues (Lys132, Tyr134, Arg111, and Glu121) within the CRABPII binding site have been identified as crucial for imine formation and/or protonation. The precise role of each residue has been examined through site directed mutagenesis and crystallographic studies. The crystal structure of the R132K:L121E-CRABPII (PDB-3I17) double mutant suggests a direct interaction between engineered Glu121 and the native Arg111, which is critical for both Schiff base formation and protonation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysoula Vasileiou
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
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Mottonen JM, Xu M, Jacobs DJ, Livesay DR. Unifying mechanical and thermodynamic descriptions across the thioredoxin protein family. Proteins 2009; 75:610-27. [PMID: 19004018 DOI: 10.1002/prot.22273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
We compare various predicted mechanical and thermodynamic properties of nine oxidized thioredoxins (TRX) using a Distance Constraint Model (DCM). The DCM is based on a nonadditive free energy decomposition scheme, where entropic contributions are determined from rigidity and flexibility of structure based on distance constraints. We perform averages over an ensemble of constraint topologies to calculate several thermodynamic and mechanical response functions that together yield quantitative stability/flexibility relationships (QSFR). Applied to the TRX protein family, QSFR metrics display a rich variety of similarities and differences. In particular, backbone flexibility is well conserved across the family, whereas cooperativity correlation describing mechanical and thermodynamic couplings between the residue pairs exhibit distinctive features that readily standout. The diversity in predicted QSFR metrics that describe cooperativity correlation between pairs of residues is largely explained by a global flexibility order parameter describing the amount of intrinsic flexibility within the protein. A free energy landscape is calculated as a function of the flexibility order parameter, and key values are determined where the native-state, transition-state, and unfolded-state are located. Another key value identifies a mechanical transition where the global nature of the protein changes from flexible to rigid. The key values of the flexibility order parameter help characterize how mechanical and thermodynamic response is linked. Variation in QSFR metrics and key characteristics of global flexibility are related to the native state X-ray crystal structure primarily through the hydrogen bond network. Furthermore, comparison of three TRX redox pairs reveals differences in thermodynamic response (i.e., relative melting point) and mechanical properties (i.e., backbone flexibility and cooperativity correlation) that are consistent with experimental data on thermal stabilities and NMR dynamical profiles. The results taken together demonstrate that small-scale structural variations are amplified into discernible global differences by propagating mechanical couplings through the H-bond network.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Mottonen
- Department of Physics and Optical Science, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
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Abstract
Current protein classification methods treat high-resolution structures as static entities. However, experiments have well documented the dynamic nature of proteins. With knowledge that thermodynamic fluctuations around the high-resolution structure contribute to a more physically accurate and biologically meaningful picture of a protein, the concept of a protein's energetic profile is introduced. It is demonstrated on a large scale that energetic profiles are both diagnostic of a protein fold and evolutionarily relevant. Development of Structural Thermodynamic Ensemble-based Protein Homology (STEPH), an algorithm that searches for local similarities between energetic profiles, constitutes a first step towards a long-term goal of our laboratory to integrate thermodynamic information into protein-fold classification approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Vertrees
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA,Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - James O. Wrabl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA,Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Vincent J. Hilser
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA,Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
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