Microbial quality of domestic and imported brands of bottled water in Trinidad

The effect of transportation vibration on the microbiological status of bottled mineral water

BACKGROUND

Microbiological status and stability are important in mineral waters because of increased global demand. An increase in distribution and supply chains has led to prolonged periods of transportation, causing microbiological changes. Therefore, this study examines the effect of vibration on mineral water quality. Freshly bottled and previously sterilized mineral waters inoculated with microbes isolated from freshly bottled water were tested. The water samples were exposed to random vibration using ASTM (D4169) truck level I, II and III standard vibration protocol for truck transportation at 4 × 1 h at 22 ± 1 °C. After agitation their microbiological status was determined.

RESULTS

Under the influence of low-intensity mechanical impact, the growth rate of autochthonous species in the freshly bottled natural mineral water tripled (μ_control  = 0.036 h^-1 , μ_vibrated  = 0.093 h^-1 ) and that of allochthonous species doubled (μ_control  = 0.035 h^-1 , μ_vibrated  = 0.069 h^-1 ). The latter was also observed in the case of high-intensity vibration (μ_control  = 0.102 h^-1 , μ_vibrated  = 0.200 h^-1 ). The effect of the medium intensity of the standard was manifested in the delay in microbial growth.

CONCLUSION

The impact of transportation vibrations on microbiological status changes in mineral water could be observed when subjected to vibration. The native and allochthonous species of mineral water respond differently to changes in intensity. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluation of occurrence of organic, inorganic, and microbial contaminants in bottled drinking water and comparison with international guidelines: a worldwide review

The aim of this study was to evaluate the levels of inorganic and organic substances as well as microbial contaminants in bottled drinking water on a global scale. The findings were compared to WHO guidelines, EPA standards, European Union (EU) directive, and standards drafted by International Bottled Water Association (IBWA). Our review showed that 46% of studies focused on the organic contaminants, 25% on physicochemical parameters, 12% on trace elements, 7% on the microbial quality, and 10% on microplastics (MPs) and radionuclides elements. Overall, from the 54 studies focusing on organic contaminants (OCs) compounds, 11% of studies had higher OCs concentrations than the standard permissible limit. According to the obtained results from this review, several OCs, inorganic contaminants (IOCs), including CHCl₃, CHBrCl₂, DEHP, benzene, styrene, Ba, As, Hg, pb, Ag, F, NO₃, and SO₄ in bottled drinking water of some countries were higher than the international guidelines values that may cause risks for human health in a long period of time. Furthermore, some problematic contaminants with known or unknown health effects such as EDCs, DBP, AA, MPs, and some radionuclides (⁴⁰K and ²²²Rn) lack maximum permissible values in bottled drinking water as stipulated by international guidelines. The risk index (HI) for OCs and IOCs (CHBrCl₂, Ba, As, and Hg) was higher than 1 in adults and children, and the value of HI for CHCl₃ in children was more than 1. Thus, further studies are required to have a better understanding of all contaminants levels in bottled drinking water.

Composition and Dynamics of Bacterial Communities in a Full-Scale Mineral Water Treatment Plant

The aim of this study was to gain insight into the bacterial composition and dynamics in a mineral water treatment system (MWTS). The bacterial community of a full-scale mineral water treatment plant in the Maofeng Mountain, South China, was studied using high-throughput sequencing combined with cultivation-based techniques in both the dry and wet season. Overall, adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) concentration (6.47 × 10^-11 – 3.32 × 10^-8 M) and heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) (3 – 1.29 × 10³ CFU/mL) of water samples in the wet season were lower than those (ATP concentration 5.10 × 10^-11 – 6.96 × 10^-8 M, HPC 2 – 1.97 × 10³ CFU/mL) in the dry season throughout the whole MWTS. The microbial activity and biomass of water samples obviously changed along with treatment process. All 300 isolates obtained using cultivation-based techniques were distributed in 5 phyla, 7 classes, and 19 genera. Proteobacteria accounted for 55.7% (167) of the total isolates, among which predominant genus was Pseudomonas (19.3%). Illumina sequencing analysis of 16s rRNA genes revealed 15 bacterial phyla (relative abundance >0.1%) as being identified in all water samples. Among these, Proteobacteria constituted the dominant bacteria microbiota in all water samples. A large shift in the proportion of Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes was obtained during the treatment process, with the proportion of Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria decreasing sharply, whereas that of Firmicutes increased and predominated in the final water product. The core microbiome, which was still present in whole MWTS comprised several genera including Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Clostridium, and Mycobacterium, that contain species that are opportunistic pathogens, suggesting a potential threat for mineral water microbiology safety. This study is the first to investigate the bacterial community of a full-scale mineral water treatment plant in China. The results provided data regarding the bacteria composition and dynamics in an MWTS, which will contribute to the beneficial manipulation of the mineral water microbiome.

Standards Compliance and Health Implications of Bottled Water in Malawi

Many people around the globe prefer bottled water especially in developing countries, where tap water is not drinkable. This study investigated the quality of bottled drinking water sold in Lilongwe city, Malawi. Compliance with Malawi Standards (MS) 560 (2004) for natural mineral water, MS 699 (2004) for bottled water and the World Health Organisation guidelines for drinking water were examined. Bottled water from different 12 brands was purchased from local stores and analysed for its pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), EC, turbidity, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, NO₃⁻, Cl⁻, F⁻, SO₄²⁻, hardness, alkalinity, and Escherichia coli. A Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) resulted in two clusters in which most of the brands (92%, n = 12) belonged to one group. The two clusters and significant differences (ANOVA p < 0.05) in chemical compositions among the brands were attributed to the variations in the water source and the treatment processes. The results showed that 10 brands did not comply with the MS 699 (2004) turbidity standard (1 NTU) and the pH of one of the brands was below the minimum MS 699 (2004) standard of 6.50. This research showed that 12 brands had bottle labelling errors and discrepancies in chemical composition. The article highlighted the need for a strict inspection from the responsible governmental ministry to improve water quality and to adjust water bottles’ labels according to water characteristics.

Non-pharmacotherapeutic interventions in travellers diarrhoea (TD)

BACKGROUND

This is a review of some of the non-pharmacotherapeutic interventions in travellers diarrhoea (TD) looking particularly at the role of pre and probiotics, the evidence behind water purification and the impact of advice given and its adherence by travellers.

METHOD

A systematic review of the research completed under section using the listed key words and searched using the databases of Google Scholar, Journal of Travel Medicine, QxMD, ReadCube and The Knowledge Network.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Travellers' diarrhoea and use of pre/probiotics: There is no significant evidence to suggest the benefit of using pre or probiotics to prevent or treat TD. A new second generation of B-GOS prebiotics shows some potential in preventing the incidence and symptoms of TD but lack high levels of graded evidence. Recent reports from the biotics industry suggest that a review of the above issues is being addressed and in the future more robust studies may be completed. The evidence behind water purification and diarrhoeal disease: Evidence suggests there is no direct correlation that water purification has an impact on diarrhoeal disease, although some studies underline the value of water purification. The use of bottled water is questioned as being unreliable due to the inconsistencies of microbiological safety. With new water purification products and methods being introduced a benefit could be found for publishing effectiveness against pathogen groups to improve comparison. Are travellers given good sanitary advice and do they follow it? The advice given to travellers by non-clinical sources is unregulated and not a statutory obligation of a reservation to travel. Within the clinical sector the advice provided and the outcomes of advice provision do not correlate with a reduction in TD as a variance can occur by travellers' changes and behaviours towards the advice given. Following recommended advice and consuming higher risks foods do not correspond directly with levels of reported TD, suggesting attitudes and practices deviate away from this advice when travelling.

Bacteriological and physical quality of locally packaged drinking water in Kampala, Uganda

OBJECTIVE

To assess the bacteriological and physical quality of locally packaged drinking water sold for public consumption.

METHODS

This was cross-sectional study where a total of 60 samples of bottled water from 10 brands and 30 samples of sachet water from 15 brands purchased randomly were analyzed for bacteriological contamination (total coliform and faecal coliform per 100 mL) using membrane filtrate method and reported in terms of cfu/100 mL.

RESULTS

Both bottled water and sachet water were not contaminated with faecal coliform. Majority (70%, 21/30) of the sachet water analyzed exceeded acceptable limits of 0 total coliforms per 100 mL set by WHO and the national drinking water standards. The physical quality (turbidity and pH) of all the packaged water brands analyzed was within the acceptable limits. There was statistically significant difference between the median count of total coliform in both sachet water and bottled water brands (U(24) = 37.0, p = 0.027).

CONCLUSION

Both bottled water and sachet water were not contaminated with faecal coliforms; majority of sachet water was contaminated with total coliform above acceptable limits. Government and other stakeholders should consider intensifying surveillance activities and enforcing strict hygienic measures in this rapidly expanding industry to improve packaged water quality.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Fecal Contamination and Inadequate Treatment of Packaged Water

BACKGROUND

Packaged water products provide an increasingly important source of water for consumption. However, recent studies raise concerns over their safety.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the microbial safety of packaged water, examine differences between regions, country incomes, packaged water types, and compare packaged water with other water sources.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis. Articles published in English, French, Portuguese, Spanish and Turkish, with no date restrictions were identified from online databases and two previous reviews. Studies published before April 2014 that assessed packaged water for the presence of Escherichia coli, thermotolerant or total coliforms were included provided they tested at least ten samples or brands.

RESULTS

A total of 170 studies were included in the review. The majority of studies did not detect fecal indicator bacteria in packaged water (78/141). Compared to packaged water from upper-middle and high-income countries, packaged water from low and lower-middle-income countries was 4.6 (95% CI: 2.6-8.1) and 13.6 (95% CI: 6.9-26.7) times more likely to contain fecal indicator bacteria and total coliforms, respectively. Compared to all other packaged water types, water from small bottles was less likely to be contaminated with fecal indicator bacteria (OR = 0.32, 95%CI: 0.17-0.58) and total coliforms (OR = 0.10, 95%CI: 0.05, 0.22). Packaged water was less likely to contain fecal indicator bacteria (OR = 0.35, 95%CI: 0.20, 0.62) compared to other water sources used for consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Policymakers and regulators should recognize the potential benefits of packaged water in providing safer water for consumption at and away from home, especially for those who are otherwise unlikely to gain access to a reliable, safe water supply in the near future. To improve the quality of packaged water products they should be integrated into regulatory and monitoring frameworks.

Effective Dose of Radon 222 Bottled Water in Different Age Groups Humans: Bandar Abbas City, Iran

Radon 222 is a natural radioactive element with a half-life of 3.8 days. It is odorless and colorless as well as water-soluble. Consuming waters which contain high concentration of 222Rn would increase the effective dose received by different age groups. It would also be followed by an increased prevalence of cancer. In this research, 72 samples of the most commonly used bottled water in Bandar Abbas were collected in 3 consecutive months, May, June and July of 2013. Concentration 222Rn of was measured by radon-meter model RTM166-2. The effective dose received by the 4 age groups, male and female adults as well as children and infants was estimated using the equation proposed by UNSCEAR. The results revealed that the mean and range concentration of 222Rn in bottled waters were 641±9 Bq/m3 and 0-901 Bq/m3, respectively. The mean concentration of 222Rn in the well-known Marks followed this Zam Zam>Bishe>Koohrng>Dassani>Christal>Polour>Damavand>Sivan. Infants were observed to receive a higher effective dose than children. The highest and lowest effective dose received was found to belong to male adults and children, respectively.

The Non-carcinogenic Risk of Cadmium in Bottled Water in Different Age Groups Humans: Bandar Abbas City, Iran

INTRODUCTION

The presence of heavy metals such as cadmium in drinking water resources can be dangerous for human because of toxicity and biological accumulation. The consumption of water which contains Cd in high concentration can lead to Bone and Kidney diseases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this present study, the researcher collected 432 samples of bottled water in the popular marks in summer and winter from the surface of Bandar Abbas. The cadmium concentration was measured by atomic absorption Spectrophotometer in model DR2800 through the Dithizone method. CDI, R and HQ which are caused by Cd for adult men, women and children, have been calculated and evaluated through the equations of EPA and WHO.

RESULTS

Mean of 1.73±0.19 µg/l (M±SE) is lower than the standard of WHO and EPA. However, 33.2% of all the samples have concentrations more than the standard limit of WHO, and the concentrations of 22.4% of the samples are more than EPA's standard. The CDI for different age groups is as following manner; Children>adult women>adult men. The CDI in children is more than twice as much as in the CDI for adult men and women. The mean of HQ order for different age groups is children>adult men>adult women. Since HQ of adult men (34E-5), adult women (31E-5) and children (84E-5), is lower than 1.

CONCLUSION

It can be said that the population of Bandar Abbas is in a safe area regarding the HQ of the bottled water's cadmium.

Fecal contamination of drinking-water in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Access to safe drinking-water is a fundamental requirement for good health and is also a human right. Global access to safe drinking-water is monitored by WHO and UNICEF using as an indicator "use of an improved source," which does not account for water quality measurements. Our objectives were to determine whether water from "improved" sources is less likely to contain fecal contamination than "unimproved" sources and to assess the extent to which contamination varies by source type and setting.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

Studies in Chinese, English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish were identified from online databases, including PubMed and Web of Science, and grey literature. Studies in low- and middle-income countries published between 1990 and August 2013 that assessed drinking-water for the presence of Escherichia coli or thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) were included provided they associated results with a particular source type. In total 319 studies were included, reporting on 96,737 water samples. The odds of contamination within a given study were considerably lower for "improved" sources than "unimproved" sources (odds ratio [OR] = 0.15 [0.10-0.21], I2 = 80.3% [72.9-85.6]). However over a quarter of samples from improved sources contained fecal contamination in 38% of 191 studies. Water sources in low-income countries (OR = 2.37 [1.52-3.71]; p<0.001) and rural areas (OR = 2.37 [1.47-3.81] p<0.001) were more likely to be contaminated. Studies rarely reported stored water quality or sanitary risks and few achieved robust random selection. Safety may be overestimated due to infrequent water sampling and deterioration in quality prior to consumption.

CONCLUSION

Access to an "improved source" provides a measure of sanitary protection but does not ensure water is free of fecal contamination nor is it consistent between source types or settings. International estimates therefore greatly overstate use of safe drinking-water and do not fully reflect disparities in access. An enhanced monitoring strategy would combine indicators of sanitary protection with measures of water quality.

A pilot study on water pollution and characterization of multidrug-resistant superbugs from Byramangala tank, Ramanagara district, Karnataka, India

Urbanization and industrialization has increased the strength and qualities of municipal sewage in Bangalore, India. The disposal of sewage into natural water bodies became a serious issue. Byramangala reservoir is one such habitat enormously polluted in South India. The water samples were collected from four hotspots of Byramangala tank in 3 months. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and bacterial counts were determined. The fecal coliforms were identified by morphological, physiological, and biochemical studies. The antibiotics sensitivity profiling of isolated bacteria were further carried out. We have noticed that a high content of BOD in the tank in all the 3 months. The total and fecal counts were found to be varied from 1.6 × 10(6) to 8.2 × 10(6) colony forming unit/ml and >5,500/100 ml, respectively. The variations in BOD and total count were found to be statistically significant at p > 0.05. Many pathogenic bacteria were characterized and most of them were found to be multidrug resistant. Salmonella showed resistance to cefoperazone, cefotaxime, cefixime, moxifloxacin, piperacillin/tazobactam, co-trimoxazole, levofloxacin, trimethoprim, and ceftazidime. Escherichia coli showed resistance to chloramphenicol, trimethoprim, co-trimoxazole, rifampicin, and nitrofurantoin while Enterobacter showed resistant to ampicillin, cefepime, ceftazidime, cefoperazone, and cefotaxime. Klebsiella and Shigella exhibited multiple drug resistance to conventional antibiotics. Staphylococcus showed resistance to vancomycin, methicillin, oxacillin, and tetracycline. Furthermore, Salmonella and Klebsiella are on the verge of acquiring resistance to even the strongest carbapenems-imipenem and entrapenem. Present study revealed that Byramanagala tank has become a cesspool of multidrug-resistant "superbugs" and will be major health concern in South Bangalore, India.

Public perception and economic implications of bottled water consumption in underprivileged urban areas

This paper presents a comparative assessment of public perception of drinking water quality in two underprivileged urban areas in Lebanon and Jordan with nearly similar cultural and demographic characteristics. It compares the quality of bottled water to the quality of the drinking water supplied through the public network and examines the economic implications of bottled water consumption in the two study areas. Participants' perception of the quality of drinking water provided via the public network was generally negative, and bottled water was perceived to be of better quality in both areas, thus affecting drinking water preferences and consumption patterns. The results reveal that the quality of bottled water is questionable in areas that lack enforcement of water quality standards, thus adding to the burden of an already disadvantaged community. Both areas demonstrated a considerable cost incurred for purchasing bottled water in low income communities reaching up to 26 % of total income.

Temporal variation of microbiological and chemical quality of noncarbonated bottled drinking water sold in Sri Lanka

Use of bottled water in Sri Lanka has increased over the last decade, while new brands of bottled water are often introduced to the market. However, the manufacturers' adherence to bottled water regulations is questionable, raising concerns regarding the quality of bottled water. The objective of the current study was to investigate the microbiological and chemical quality of bottled water in Sri Lanka. Thirty bottled water brands were sampled and their chemical and microbiological parameters were analyzed. Microbiological analysis was carried out within 1 to 3, 3 to 6, 6 to 9, and 9 to 12 mo after the date of manufacture. The results indicated that 63% of brands tested exceeded the levels permitted by the Sri Lanka Standards Institution (SLSI) for presumptive total coliforms (TC) (<10 cfu per 100 mL) whereas 97% brands exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) permitted level. Thirty percent of brands exceeded the limit for presumptive fecal coliforms (FC) (0 cfu per 100 mL in accordance with WHO permitted levels, SLSI and the Sri Lanka Health Ministry requirement). Eighty percent of brands showed higher heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) which exceeded the WHO guidelines for bottled drinking water. Throughout their shelf life, the counts of TC, FC, and HPC bacteria decreased. Bacteria identified were Klebsiella pneumoniae ssp. pneumoniae, Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Pasteurella haemolytica, the most frequently being P. aeruginosa. The dominant fungi identified were Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. Inorganic chemical parameters were within permitted levels for all brands except for initial content of ammonia. The results of this study show the need for the bottling industry to be monitored closely by relevant authorities, in order to provide safe bottled drinking water to consumers in Sri Lanka.

Enteropathogenic bacteria contamination of unchlorinated drinking water in Korea, 2010

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to assess the microbiological quality of unchlorinated drinking water in Korea, 2010. One hundred and eighty unchlorinated drinking water samples were collected from various sites in Seoul and Gyeonggi province.

METHODS

To investigate bacterial presence, the pour plate method was used with cultures grown on selective media for total bacteria, total coliforms, and Staphylococcus spp., respectively.

RESULTS

In the 180 total bacteria investigation, 72 samples from Seoul and 33 samples from Gyeonggi province were of an unacceptable quality (>10(2) CFU/mL). Of all the samples tested, total coliforms were detected in 28 samples (15.6%) and Staphylococcus spp. in 12 samples (6.7%). Most of the coliform isolates exhibited high-level resistance to cefazolin (88.2%), cefonicid (64.7%) and ceftazidime (20.6%). In addition, Staphylococcus spp. isolates exhibited high-level resistance to mupirocin (42%). Species of Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Cupriavidus, Hafnia, Rahnella, Serratia, and Yersinia were isolated from the water samples.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that consumption of unchlorinated drinking water could represent a notable risk to the health of consumers. As such, there is need for continuous monitoring of these water sources and to establish standards.

Quality assessment of various bottled waters marketed in Lebanon

Thirty-two domestic bottled water brands were analyzed for various physico-chemical as well as bacterial water quality parameters. Recorded results were compared with the Lebanese Standards Institution standards of quality and standards of identity as well as various international water standards for bottled waters. Results showed a widespread in the characteristics of investigated bottled waters, yet the majority met the different bottled water standards for physico-chemical parameters except for pH (4 brands), hardness (2 brands), and calcium (2 brands). All samples showed negative growth for fecal coliforms, yet 18.8% (N = 6) and 59.4% (N = 19) of the samples revealed positive results for total coliforms and heterotrophic plate count at 37°C, respectively. Generated Piper diagrams revealed that the majority of investigated waters are of calcium-magnesium bicarbonate type; some brands were rich in sodium-potassium chloride, and few were of the mixed type. Comparison of the study results with reported label values indicated good agreement with stated pH values but considerable variation for dry residue, Mg, Na, K, Ca, Mg, HCO₃, Cl, and SO₄. Identification labels showed varying compliance with the Lebanese Standards Institution standards of identity.

Water quality of bottled water in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A comparative study with Riyadh municipal and Zamzam water

Nine domestic and three imported bottled water brands were analyzed in Saudi Arabia for various physicochemical water quality parameters. The results of the analysis were compared with the drinking water standards set by different regulatory agencies. The levels of different physicochemical parameters like pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), Ca, Mg, Na, K, NO(3), Cl, and SO(4) of all local and imported bottled water brands met the standards set by different regulatory agencies. Fifteen (15) trace metals viz. Al, As, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Sr, Pb, and Zn were also analyzed in all the samples. Comparison of analyzed results with the reported label values showed considerable variation for different parameters. Variation was also recorded for the analyzed parameters for 3 bottles of the same bottled water brand, both for local and imported bottled waters. Zamzam water was also collected from Makkah Al Mukarrama from different locations and analyzed for various physical and chemical parameters. Bottled waters were also compared with the city municipal water supply and Zamzam water.

Risk assessment of heterotrophic bacteria from bottled drinking water sold in Indian markets

One hundred and five samples of bottled drinking water belonging to 30 different brands, collected from six different states of India have been analysed for total heterotrophic bacterial (THB) load and coliforms. Almost all bottlers used multiple treatment procedures such as microfiltration, reverse osmosis and ozonization to treat the water. Around 40% of the samples exceeded the limit of 100 cfu/ml set by the department of health as well as Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Government of India. Fourteen percent and 44% of the samples with THB loads between 100 and 1000 cfu/ml or 1000 cfu/ml tested positive for coliforms indicating a linear relationship between THB and coliform bacteria. Gram-positive genera such as Kurthia and Corynebacterium were found to be dominant genera, while members of the family enterobacteriaceae contributed to 7%. Risk assessment of the heterotrophic bacteria revealed that the majority of the strains acquired resistance against ampicillin, nalidixic acid, novobiocin and oxytetracycline. As bottled drinking water is a ready to drink commodity, the high load of heterotrophic bacteria with multiple drug resistance poses significant health hazards to the consumers, especially to immunocompromised individuals.

Comparative typing of Pseudomonas species isolated from the aquatic environment in Greece by SDS-PAGE and RAPD analysis

AIMS

Three broadly used typing methods were employed in order to assess and compare the identification and classification of environmental Pseudomonas strains. The reproducibility, typeability and discriminatory power of the methods were also compared to evaluate their application. Finally, the potential impact on public health of the isolates is to be discussed.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Pseudomonas strains (160) isolated from the aquatic environment in Greece and identified by a rapid identification commercially available system (API20NE), were subjected to whole-cell protein electrophoresis (Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) and Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNAs (RAPD) using two 10-mer primers. In general, the obtained results were in agreement. Twenty isolates that could not be identified by the API20NE system were classified by the other methods.

CONCLUSIONS

Rapid identification systems may serve only for a first rough identification of environmental Pseudomonads. In order to acquire further information, so that conclusions about their role in the ecosystem and human health could be drawn, other phenotypic or genotypic methods have to be applied.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY

It is important, from a public health point of view, to monitor the identities of environmental Pseudomonas isolates using specific methods due to their ubiquity, heterogeneity and their pathogenicity, either established or potential.

Factors contributing to the public health and economic importance of waterborne zoonotic parasites

This is the first of a series of review articles in a Special Issue publication on waterborne zoonotic parasites. A brief historical overview of the occurrence and importance of waterborne parasites, dating from early civilization is presented. The article considers the diversity of parasites including protozoa, nematodes, cestodes and trematodes and the related zoonotic organism microsporidia. Many of the life cycle stages and their characteristics, which make parasites environmentally resistant and suitable for waterborne transmission are discussed. Surfaces of transmission stages consist of multiple layers of proteins, lipids, chitin or other substances capable of withstanding a variety of physical and chemical treatments. Delivery of waterborne parasites is facilitated by various mass distribution systems to consumers, and by transport and intermediate hosts such as fish and filter-feeding invertebrates which are consumed by humans. The article discusses the trends in global warming and climate change and potential for concurrent rise in waterborne disease outbreaks due to parasites. Impacts of technological modernization and globalization on the transmission of zoonotic waterborne zoonotic parasites are considered, including the effects of large-scale agricultural practices, rapid transportation of goods, and widespread movement of individuals and animals. Finally, transmission features and parasite attributes which contribute to concerns about accidental or orchestrated waterborne disease outbreaks are discussed.