Effects of peptides on animal and human behavior: a review of studies published in the first twenty years of the journal Peptides

The melanocortin receptor signaling system and its role in neuroprotection against neurodegeneration: Therapeutic insights

The melanocortin signaling system consists of the melanocortin peptides, their distinctive receptors, accessory proteins, and endogenous antagonists. Melanocortin peptides are small peptide hormones that have been studied in a variety of physiological and pathological conditions. There are five types of melanocortin receptors, and they are distributed within the central nervous system and in several tissues of the periphery. The G protein-coupled melanocortin receptors typically signal through adenylyl cyclase and other downstream signaling pathways. Depending on the ligand, surface expression of melanocortin receptor, receptor occupancy period, related proteins, the type of cell, and other parameters, the signaling pathways are complicated and pleiotropic. While it is known that all five melanocortin receptors are coupled to Gs, they can also occasionally couple to Gq or Gi. Both direct and indirect neuroprotection are induced by the melanocortin signaling system. Targeting several of the components of the melanocortin signaling system (ligands, receptors, accessory proteins, signaling effectors, and regulators) may provide therapeutic opportunities. Activation of the melanocortin system improves different functional traits in neurodegenerative diseases. There is a potential for additional melanocortin system interventions by interfering with dimerization or dissociation. This review aims to discuss the melanocortin receptor signaling system and its role in neuroprotection, as well as its therapeutic potential.

Aged Brains Express Less Melanocortin Receptors, Which Correlates with Age-Related Decline of Cognitive Functions

Brain G-protein coupled receptors have been hypothesized to be potential targets for maintaining or restoring cognitive function in normal aged individuals or in patients with neurodegenerative disease. A number of recent reports suggest that activation of melanocortin receptors (MCRs) in the brain can significantly improve cognitive functions of normal rodents and of different rodent models of the Alzheimer's disease. However, the potential impact of normative aging on the expression of MCRs and their potential roles for modulating cognitive function remains to be elucidated. In the present study, we first investigated the expression of these receptors in six different brain regions of young (6 months) and aged (23 months) rats following assessment of their cognitive status. Correlation analysis was further performed to reveal potential contributions of MCR subtypes to spatial learning and memory. Our results revealed statistically significant correlations between the expression of several MCR subtypes in the frontal cortex/hypothalamus and the hippocampus regions and the rats' performance in spatial learning and memory only in the aged rats. These findings support the hypothesis that aging has a direct impact on the expression and function of MCRs, establishing MCRs as potential drug targets to alleviate aging-induced decline of cognitive function.

Enzymolysis peptides from Mauremys mutica plastron improve the disorder of neurotransmitter system and facilitate sleep-promoting in the PCPA-induced insomnia mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCY

For many centuries, Mauremys mutica is highly valued as a food homologous Chinese herbal medicine. It has been considered useful to sedate, nourish brain and promote sleep. However, the animal experimental evidence of its sleep-promoting activity is missing in literature.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, PCPA-induced insomnia model was used to explore the sleep-promoting mechanism of enzymolysis peptides from PMM, and its main composition and chemical structure were analyzed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experiments were performed using PCPA-induced insomnia model, all animals were intraperitoneally injected with PCPA (350 mg/kg·d) for two days. The sleep-promoting effect evaluated using measuring content of 5-HT, GABA, DA, IL-1, BDNF and expression of 5-HT1A receptor and GABAA receptor α1-subunit in mice brain. Primary structure of peptides was identified by HPLC-ESI-QqTOF-MS/MS.

RESULTS

Compared with the model group, the content of 5-HT, GABA, IL-1, BDNF in mice brain of PMM peptide groups was increased to varying degrees, the content of DA was decreased, and the gene transcription and protein expression of 5-HT1A receptor and GABAA receptor α1-subunit were almost all returned to normal levels. In addition, the primary structures of most abundant nine typical peptides in PMM peptides were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that PMM peptides could improve the disorder of neurotransmitter system, restore compensatory over-expression 5-HT1A receptor and GABAA receptor α1-subunit, and have a good sleep-promoting effect. The specific amino acid composition, sequence and glycosylation modification of PMM peptides may be the key reason for their activity, which lays a foundation for the subsequent development of sleep-promoting peptide products.

Neuroprotective Effect of β-secretase Inhibitory Peptide from Pacific Hake (Merluccius productus) Fish Protein Hydrolysate

BACKGROUND

Various methodologies have been employed for the therapeutic interpolation of the progressive brain disorder Alzheimer's disease. Thus, β-secretase inhibition is significant to prevent disease progression in the early stages.

OBJECTIVE

This study seeks to purify and characterize a novel β-secretase inhibitory peptide from Pacific hake enzymatic hydrolysate.

METHODS

A potent β-secretase inhibitory peptide was isolated by sequential purifications using Sephadex G-25 column chromatography and octadecylsilane (ODS) C18 reversed-phase HPLC. A total of seven peptides were synthesized using the isolated peptide sequences. SH-SY5Y cells stably transfected with the human ''Swedish'' amyloid precursor protein (APP) mutation APP695 (SH-SY5YAPP695swe) were used as an in-vitro model system to investigate the effect of Leu-Asn peptide on APP processing.

RESULTS

The β-secretase inhibitory activity (IC50) of the purified peptide (Ser-Leu-Ala-Phe-Val-Asp- Asp-Val-Leu-Asn) from fish protein hydrolysate was 18.65 μM and dipeptide Leu-Asn was the most potent β-secretase inhibitor (IC50 value = 8.82 µM). When comparing all the seven peptides, the inhibition pattern of Leu-Asn dipeptide was found to be competitive by Lineweaver-Burk plot and Dixon plot (Ki value = 4.24 µM). The 24 h treatment with Leu-Asn peptide in SH-SY5Y cells resulted in reducing the β-amyloid (Aβ) production in a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, the results of this study suggest that β-secretase inhibitory peptides derived from marine organisms could be potential candidates to develop nutraceuticals or pharmaceuticals as antidementia agents.

Cocoa Bean Proteins-Characterization, Changes and Modifications due to Ripening and Post-Harvest Processing

The protein fractions of cocoa have been implicated influencing both the bioactive potential and sensory properties of cocoa and cocoa products. The objective of the present review is to show the impact of different stages of cultivation and processing with regard to the changes induced in the protein fractions. Special focus has been laid on the major seed storage proteins throughout the different stages of processing. The study starts with classical introduction of the extraction and the characterization methods used, while addressing classification approaches of cocoa proteins evolved during the timeline. The changes in protein composition during ripening and maturation of cocoa seeds, together with the possible modifications during the post-harvest processing (fermentation, drying, and roasting), have been documented. Finally, the bioactive potential arising directly or indirectly from cocoa proteins has been elucidated. The “state of the art” suggests that exploration of other potentially bioactive components in cocoa needs to be undertaken, while considering the complexity of reaction products occurring during the roasting phase of the post-harvest processing. Finally, the utilization of partially processed cocoa beans (e.g., fermented, conciliatory thermal treatment) can be recommended, providing a large reservoir of bioactive potentials arising from the protein components that could be instrumented in functionalizing foods.

Effect of Marine Collagen Peptides on Physiological and Neurobehavioral Development of Male Rats with Perinatal Asphyxia

Asphyxia during delivery produces long-term deficits in brain development. We investigated the neuroprotective effects of marine collagen peptides (MCPs), isolated from Chum Salmon skin by enzymatic hydrolysis, on male rats with perinatal asphyxia (PA). PA was performed by immersing rat fetuses with uterine horns removed from ready-to-deliver rats into a water bath for 15 min. Caesarean-delivered pups were used as controls. PA rats were intragastrically administered with 0.33 g/kg, 1.0 g/kg and 3.0 g/kg body weight MCPs from postnatal day 0 (PND 0) till the age of 90-days. Behavioral tests were carried out at PND21, PND 28 and PND 90. The results indicated that MCPs facilitated early body weight gain of the PA pups, however had little effects on early physiological development. Behavioral tests revealed that MCPs facilitated long-term learning and memory of the pups with PA through reducing oxidative damage and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the brain, and increasing hippocampus phosphorylated cAMP-response element binding protein (p-CREB) and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression.

Purification and identification of angiotensin I-converting enzyme-inhibitory peptides from apalbumin 2 during simulated gastrointestinal digestion

BACKGROUND

Bee larvae are considered to be an important reservoir for proteins. However, little attention has been paid to the release of potential bioactive peptides from bee larva proteins. In this study the major protein in bee larvae was hydrolyzed in vitro by gastrointestinal enzymes. The peptide profile of the hydrolysis was characterized by gel filtration chromatography and tricine-SDS-PAGE. Furthermore, the bioactive peptide was isolated and identified by Q-TOF-MS/MS.

RESULTS

The major bee larva protein was identified as apalbumin 2 and was more digestible into peptides with molecular weights lower than 3 kDa. The hydrolysate obtained after 3 h of digestion exhibited angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory activity and was purified sequentially by gel filtration and RP-HPLC. The molecular weights of peptide fractions with ACE-inhibitory activity were distributed between 0.5 and 1.5 kDa. A novel peptide with highest ACE-inhibitory activity (IC50 54.9 µmol L(-1) ) was purified by further RP-HPLC. The amino acid sequence of this peptide was identified as LLKPY (632.40 Da).

CONCLUSION

ACE-inhibitory peptides could be formed from bee larvae through gastrointestinal digestion. The most active peptide (LLKPY) is potentially useful as a therapeutic agent in treating hypertension.

Synaptic changes induced by melanocortin signalling

The melanocortin system has a well-established role in the regulation of energy homeostasis, but there is growing evidence of its involvement in memory, nociception, mood disorders and addiction. In this Review, we focus on the role of the melanocortin 4 receptor and provide an integrative view of the molecular mechanisms that lead to melanocortin-induced changes in synaptic plasticity within these diverse physiological systems. We also highlight the importance of melanocortin peptides and receptors in chronic pain syndromes, memory impairments, depression and drug abuse, and the possibility of targeting them for therapeutic purposes.

Melanocortin-4 receptor regulates hippocampal synaptic plasticity through a protein kinase A-dependent mechanism

Learning and memory require orchestrated regulation of both structural and functional synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. While a neuropeptide alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, α-MSH, has been implicated in memory acquisition and retention, the functional role of its cognate receptor, melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), in hippocampal-dependent synaptic plasticity has not been explored. In this study, we report that activation of MC4R enhances synaptic plasticity through the regulation of dendritic spine morphology and abundance of AMPA receptors. We show that activation of postsynaptic MC4R increases the number of mature dendritic spines and enhances surface expression of AMPA receptor subunit GluA1, resulting in synaptic accumulation of GluA1-containing AMPA receptors. Moreover, MC4R stimulates surface GluA1 trafficking through phosphorylation of GluA1 at Ser845 in a Gα(s)-cAMP/PKA-dependent manner. Blockade of protein kinase A (PKA) signaling abolishes the MC4R-mediated enhancement of neurotransmission and hippocampal long-term potentiation. Importantly, in vivo application of MC4R agonists increases LTP in the mouse hippocampal CA1 region. These findings reveal that MC4R in the hippocampus plays a critical role in the regulation of structural and functional plasticity.

In vitro and in vivo characterization of opioid activities of C-terminal esterified endomorphin-2 analogs

Previously, we have synthesized a series of endomorphin-2 (EM-2) analogs by the substitution of C-terminal amide group. In the present study, to further our knowledge of the influence of C-terminal esterified modification on the pharmacological activities, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo opioid activities of C-terminal esterified EM-2 analogs 1-3. Our results showed that the ED(50) values on contractions of the longitudinal muscle of distal colon induced by analogs 1-3 were about 1.5-fold higher, 2- and 8-fold lower than EM-2, respectively. In addition, intravenous (i.v.) injections of analogs 1 and 2 dose-dependently decreased the system arterial pressure (SAP) and heart rate (HR) in anesthetized rats, but the degree of the hypotension and bradycardia was significantly smaller relative to the parent. Moreover, analog 3 was almost ineffective. Nevertheless, all these analogs produced potent antinociception in the tail-flick test after intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection, and this antinociception was inhibited by naloxone, indicating an opioid mechanism. In summary, these results gave the evidence that the conversion of C-terminal amide to esterified modification may play an important role in the regulation of opioid affinities and pharmacological activities.

Type 1 diabetes attenuates the modulatory effects of endomorphins on mouse colonic motility

Our previous studies have shown that endomorphins (EMs), endogenous ligands for mu-opioid receptor, display a significant potentiation effect on mouse colonic motility. In the present study, to assess whether diabetes alters these modulatory effects of EMs on colonic motility, we investigated the effects of EMs in type 1 diabetic mouse colon in vitro. At 4 weeks after the onset of diabetes, carbachol-induced contractions in the longitudinal muscle of distal colon were significantly reduced compared to those of non-diabetic mice. Furthermore, the contractile effects induced by EMs in the longitudinal muscle of distal colon and in the circular muscle of proximal colon were also significantly reduced by type 1 diabetes. It is noteworthy that EMs-induced longitudinal muscle contractions were not significantly affected by atropine, Nomega-nitro-l-arginine methylester (l-NAME), phentolamine, propranolol, hexamethonium, methysergide and naltrindole. On the other hand, tetrodotoxin, indomethacin, naloxone, beta-funaltrexamine, naloxonazine and nor-binaltorphimine completely abolished these effects. These mechanisms responsible for EMs-induced modulatory effects in type 1 diabetes were in good agreement with those of non-diabetes, indicating similar mechanisms in both diabetes and non-diabetes. At 8 weeks after the onset of diabetes, both carbachol- and EMs-induced longitudinal muscle contractions were similar to those of short-time (4 weeks) diabetic mice. In summary, all the results indicated that type 1 diabetes significantly attenuated the modulatory effects of EMs on the mouse colonic motility, but the mechanisms responsible for these effects were not significantly altered.

In vitro and in vivo characterization of opioid activities of endomorphins analogs with novel constrained C-terminus: evidence for the important role of proper spatial disposition of the third aromatic ring

In the present study, the C-terminus of endomorphin (Tyr(1)-Pro(2)-Trp/Phe(3)-Phe(4)-NH(2), EMs) analogs [Xaa(4)-R]EMs, modified by substitution of a non-aromatic residue for Phe(4) and ending up with -NH-benzyl, were designed to generate an atypical conformationally constrained peptide set. We investigated the effects of these analogs on the opioid receptors affinity, guinea pig ileum (GPI) and mouse vas deferens (MVD) activity, system arterial pressure (SAP), heart rate (HR), antinociception and colonic motility. Analogs 5 ([D-V(4)-Bzl]EM1) and 10 ([D-V(4)-Bzl]EM2), which exhibit appropriate spatial orientations of the third aromatic ring, were about 3-4 times more potent than their parents both in vivo and in vitro. However, a drastic loss of activity was found in analogs 2 ([A(4)-Bzl]EM1) and 7 ([A(4)-Bzl]EM2), which possess improper spatial orientations of the third aromatic ring. Interestingly, analog 7 or 3 ([G(4)-Bzl]EM1), when injected intravenously (i.v.), produced significantly different changes in SAP from their parents. Surprisingly, analog 4 displayed relatively higher vasodepressor activity but significantly less potent colonic contractile activity than analog 5. This may be elicited by the differences in the spatial disposition of the third aromatic ring, which were verified by molecular modeling. Our results indicate that the proper spatial disposition of the third aromatic ring plays an important role in the regulation of pharmacological activities of EMs.

Abnormal modulation of cholinergic neurotransmission by endomorphin 1 and endomorphin 2 in isolated bronchus of type 1 diabetic rats

To assess whether diabetes alters the regulatory effects of mu-opioid receptor (MOR) agonists on the cholinergic bronchoconstriction, we investigated the inhibitory effects of endomorphins (EMs) on the electrical field stimulation (EFS)-induced cholinergic bronchoconstriction in type 1 diabetic rats. At 4 weeks after the onset of diabetes, both the EFS- and exogenous acetylcholine (ACh)-induced bronchoconstriction in diabetes in vitro were greater than those in non-diabetes rats. Furthermore, endomorphin 1 (EM1) and endomorphin 2 (EM2) inhibited the response to EFS in diabetic rat isolated bronchus in a concentration- and frequency-dependent manner, which is in agreement with that in non-diabetes. However, the inhibitory effects of EMs on the EFS-induced bronchoconstriction in diabetes were significantly weaker than those in non-diabetes. Both EM1 and EM2 (1 microM) had no effect on the contractile response to exogenous ACh, indicating a prejunctional effect. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect on the EFS-induced bronchoconstriction was blocked by naloxone (10 microM). Eight weeks after the induction of diabetes, both the EFS- and exogenous ACh-induced bronchoconstrictions in diabetes were further enhanced compared to those in short-time (4 weeks) diabetic rats. Moreover, the inhibitory effects of EMs on the EFS-induced bronchoconstriction were further attenuated. These results suggest that dysfunction of presynaptic inhibitory modulation through opioid receptor by EMs may take place in the bronchus of diabetic rats.

Protection from neuronal damage evoked by a motivational excitation is a driving force of intentional actions

Motivation may be understood as an organism's subjective attitude to its current physiological state, which somehow modulates generation of actions until the organism attains an optimal state. How does this subjective attitude arise and how does it modulate generation of actions? Diverse lines of evidence suggest that elemental motivational states (hunger, thirst, fear, drug-dependence, etc.) arise as the result of metabolic disturbances and are related to transient injury, while rewards (food, water, avoidance, drugs, etc.) are associated with the recovery of specific neurons. Just as motivation and the very life of an organism depend on homeostasis, i.e., maintenance of optimum performance, so a neuron's behavior depends on neuronal (i.e., ion) homeostasis. During motivational excitation, the conventional properties of a neuron, such as maintenance of membrane potential and spike generation, are disturbed. Instrumental actions may originate as a consequence of the compensational recovery of neuronal excitability after the excitotoxic damage induced by a motivation. When the extent of neuronal actions is proportional to a metabolic disturbance, the neuron theoretically may choose a beneficial behavior even, if at each instant, it acts by chance. Homeostasis supposedly may be directed to anticipating compensation of the factors that lead to a disturbance of the homeostasis and, as a result, participates in the plasticity of motivational behavior. Following this line of thought, I suggest that voluntary actions arise from the interaction between endogenous compensational mechanisms and excitotoxic damage of specific neurons, and thus anticipate the exogenous compensation evoked by a reward.

Effects of peptides, with emphasis on feeding, pain, and behavior A 5-year (1999-2003) review of publications in Peptides

Novel effects of naturally occurring peptides are continuing to be discovered, and their mechanisms of actions as well as interactions with other substances, organs, and systems have been elucidated. Synthetic analogs may have actions similar or antagonistic to the endogenous peptides, and both the native peptides and analogs have potential as drugs or drug targets. The journal Peptides publishes many leading articles on the structure-activity relationship of peptides as well as outstanding reviews on some families of peptides. Complementary to the reviews, here we extract information from the original papers published during the past five years in Peptides (1999-2003) to summarize the effects of different classes of peptides, their modulation by other chemicals and various pathophysiological states, and the mechanisms by which the effects are exerted. Special attention is given to peptides related to feeding, pain, and other behaviors. By presenting in condensed form the effects of peptides which are essential for systems biology, we hope that this summary of existing knowledge will encourage additional novel research to be presented in Peptides.

Platelet factor 4 fragment induces histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells

Platelet factor 4 (PF-4) belongs to a superfamily of low-molecular weight proteins known as chemokines. However, its function has not been fully evaluated. In the present study, we investigated the effect of PF-4 on histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells by employing its biologically-active carboxyl-terminal fragment, PF-4 (58-70). PF-4 (58-70) stimulated histamine release from mast cells in a dose-dependent manner (10(-8) to 10(-5)M). Histamine release induced by PF-4 (58-70) occurred rapidly (<30s) and was inhibited by extracellular Ca(2+). These results suggest that PF-4 might play a crucial role at the site of inflammation and/or immune response.