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Use of Classes of Antihyperglycemic Agents in People With Type 2 Diabetes Based on Level of Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate. Can J Diabetes 2023; 47:223-227. [PMID: 36842879 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcjd.2023.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Shi S, Ni L, Tian Y, Zhang B, Xiao J, Xu W, Gao L, Wu X. Association of Obesity Indices with Diabetic Kidney Disease and Diabetic Retinopathy in Type 2 Diabetes: A Real-World Study. J Diabetes Res 2023; 2023:3819830. [PMID: 37096235 PMCID: PMC10122582 DOI: 10.1155/2023/3819830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Diabetic microvascular complications mainly include diabetic kidney disease (DKD) and diabetic retinopathy (DR). Obesity was recognized as a risk factor for DKD, while the reported relationship between obesity and DR was inconsistent. Moreover, whether the associations can be attributed to C-peptide levels is unknown. Methods Data from 1142 sequential inpatients with T2DM at Xiangyang Central Hospital between June 2019 and March 2022 were extracted retrospectively from the electronic medical record system. The associations between four obesity indices (body mass index (BMI), waist-hip circumference ratio (WHR), visceral fat tissue area (VFA), and subcutaneous fat tissue area (SFA)) and DKD and DR were evaluated. Whether the associations can be attributed to C-peptide levels was also explored. Results Obesity was a risk factor for DKD after adjusting for sex, HbA1c, TG, TC, HDL, LDL, smoking history, education, duration of diabetes, and insulin use (obesity indices: BMI (OR 1.050: 95% CI: 1.008-1.094; P = 0.020); WHR (OR 10.97; 95% CI: 1.250-92.267; P = 0.031); VFA (OR 1.005; 95% CI: 1.001-1.008; P = 0.008)), but it became insignificant after further adjusting for fasting C-peptide. The associations between BMI, WHR, VFA, and DKD might be U-shaped. Obesity and FCP tended to protect against DR; however, they became insignificant after adjusting for multiple potential confounders. C2/C0 (the ratio of the postprandial serum C-peptide to fasting C-peptide) was a protective factor for both DKD (OR 0.894, 95% CI: 0.833-0.959, P < 0.05) and DR (OR 0.851, 95% CI: 0.787-0.919; P < 0.05). Conclusions Obesity was a risk factor for DKD, and the effect may be attributable to C-peptide, which represents insulin resistance. The protective effect of obesity or C-peptide on DR was not independent and could be confounded by multiple factors. Higher C2/C0 was associated with both decreased DKD and DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaomin Shi
- Department of Nephrology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 169 Donghu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
- Xiangyang Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, Hubei 441000, China
| | - Lihua Ni
- Department of Nephrology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 169 Donghu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
| | - Yuan Tian
- Xiangyang Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, Hubei 441000, China
| | - Baifang Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry, Wuhan University TaiKang Medical School (School of Basic Medical Sciences), Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
| | - Jing Xiao
- Xiangyang Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, Hubei 441000, China
| | - Wan Xu
- Xiangyang Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, Hubei 441000, China
| | - Ling Gao
- Xiangyang Central Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Arts and Science, Xiangyang, Hubei 441000, China
| | - Xiaoyan Wu
- Department of Nephrology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 169 Donghu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
- Department of General Practice, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, 169 Donghu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
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Chung JO, Park SY, Cho DH, Chung DJ, Chung MY. Association Between Serum C-Peptide Level and Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy According to Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2019; 128:607-614. [PMID: 31610588 DOI: 10.1055/a-1017-3048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the association between serum C-peptide level and cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) according to estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, we examined 939 individuals with type 2 DM. We measured fasting C-peptide, 2-hour postprandial C-peptide, and ΔC-peptide (postprandial C-peptide minus fasting C-peptide) levels. The individuals were classified into 2 groups based on eGFR: individuals without impaired renal function (eGFR ≥60 ml∙min-1 1.73m-2) and those with impaired renal function (eGFR <60 ml∙min-1 1.73m-2). RESULTS Individuals with CAN had lower fasting C-peptide, postprandial C-peptide, and ΔC-peptide levels in patients both with and without impaired renal function. Multivariate logistic regression analyses adjusted for gender, age, and other confounders, including eGFR, showed that serum C-peptide level was significantly associated with CAN (odds ratio [OR] per standard deviation increase in the log-transformed value, 0.67; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.52-0.87 for fasting C-peptide, P < 0.01; OR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.47-0.83 for postprandial C-peptide, P < 0.01; OR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.54-0.93 for ΔC-peptide, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Serum C-peptide level was negatively associated with CAN in individuals with type 2 DM independent of eGFR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Ook Chung
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Republic of Korea
| | - Seon-Young Park
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hyeok Cho
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Jin Chung
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Young Chung
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Republic of Korea
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Safe Use of Metformin in Adults With Type 2 Diabetes and Chronic Kidney Disease: Lower Dosages and Sick-Day Education Are Essential. Can J Diabetes 2019; 43:76-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcjd.2018.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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5
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Chung JO, Cho DH, Chung DJ, Chung MY. Relationship between serum C-peptide level and diabetic retinopathy according to estimated glomerular filtration rate in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Diabetes Complications 2015; 29:350-5. [PMID: 25623633 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2014.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test the hypothesis that serum C-peptide level would relate to the risk of diabetic retinopathy (DR) in type 2 diabetic patients independently of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). DESIGN A total of 2,062 patients with type 2 diabetes were investigated in this cross-sectional study. Fasting C-peptide, 2-hour postprandial C-peptide, and ΔC-peptide (postprandial C-peptide minus fasting C-peptide) levels were measured. The patients were divided into two groups according to eGFR (ml∙min(-1)1.73m(-2)): patients without renal impairment (eGFR ≥60) and those with renal impairment (eGFR <60). RESULTS In subjects both with and without renal impairment, patients with DR showed lower levels of fasting C-peptide, postprandial C-peptide and ΔC-peptide. In multivariate analysis, serum C-peptide levels were significantly associated with DR (odds ratio [OR] of each standard deviation increase in the logarithmic value, 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.78-0.92 for fasting C-peptide, P<0.001; OR, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.82-0.92 for postprandial C-peptide, P<0.001; OR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.82-0.94 for ΔC-peptide, P<0.001) after adjustment for age, gender, and other confounding factors including eGFR. CONCLUSIONS Serum C-peptide levels are inversely associated with the prevalence of DR in type 2 diabetic patients independently of eGFR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Ook Chung
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, 8 Hak-Dong, Dong-Gu, Gwangju, 501-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hyeok Cho
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, 8 Hak-Dong, Dong-Gu, Gwangju, 501-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Jin Chung
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, 8 Hak-Dong, Dong-Gu, Gwangju, 501-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Young Chung
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, 8 Hak-Dong, Dong-Gu, Gwangju, 501-757, Republic of Korea.
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MacCallum L. Optimal Medication Dosing in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus and Chronic Kidney Disease. Can J Diabetes 2014; 38:334-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcjd.2014.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Revised: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Lalau JD, Arnouts P, Sharif A, De Broe ME. Metformin and other antidiabetic agents in renal failure patients. Kidney Int 2014; 87:308-22. [PMID: 24599253 DOI: 10.1038/ki.2014.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This review mainly focuses on metformin, and considers oral antidiabetic therapy in kidney transplant patients and the potential benefits and risks of antidiabetic agents other than metformin in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). In view of the debate concerning lactic acidosis associated with metformin, this review tries to solve a paradox: metformin should be prescribed more widely because of its beneficial effects, but also less widely because of the increasing prevalence of contraindications to metformin, such as reduced renal function. Lactic acidosis appears either as part of a number of clinical syndromes (i.e., unrelated to metformin), induced by metformin (involving an analysis of the drug's pharmacokinetics and mechanisms of action), or associated with metformin (a more complex situation, as lactic acidosis in a metformin-treated patient is not necessarily accompanied by metformin accumulation, nor does metformin accumulation necessarily lead to lactic acidosis). A critical analysis of guidelines and literature data on metformin therapy in patients with CKD is presented. Following the present focus on metformin, new paradoxical issues can be drawn up, in particular: (i) metformin is rarely the sole cause of lactic acidosis; (ii) lactic acidosis in patients receiving metformin therapy is erroneously still considered a single medical entity, as several different scenarios can be defined, with contrasting prognoses. The prognosis for severe lactic acidosis seems even better in metformin-treated patients than in non-metformin users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Daniel Lalau
- 1] Service d'Endocrinologie et de Nutrition, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Amiens, France [2] Unité INSERM U-1088, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, France
| | - Paul Arnouts
- Department of Nephrology-Diabetology-Endocrinology, AZ Turnhout, Turnhout, Belgium
| | - Adnan Sharif
- Department of Nephrology and Transplantation, Renal Institute of Birmingham, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, UK
| | - Marc E De Broe
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
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Arnouts P, Bolignano D, Nistor I, Bilo H, Gnudi L, Heaf J, van Biesen W. Glucose-lowering drugs in patients with chronic kidney disease: a narrative review on pharmacokinetic properties. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2013; 29:1284-300. [PMID: 24322578 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gft462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The achievement of a good glycaemic control is one of the cornerstones for preventing and delaying progression of microvascular and macrovascular complications in patients with both diabetes and chronic kidney disease (CKD). As for other drugs, the presence of an impaired renal function may significantly affect pharmacokinetics of the majority of glucose-lowering agents, thus exposing diabetic CKD patients to a higher risk of side effects, mainly hypoglycaemic episodes. As a consequence, a reduction in dosing and/or frequency of administration is necessary to keep a satisfactory efficacy/safety profile. In this review, we aim to summarize the pharmacology of the most widely used glucose-lowering agents, discuss whether and how it is altered by a reduced renal function, and the recommendations that can be made for their use in patients with different degrees of CKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Arnouts
- Nephrology-Diabetology Department, AZ Turnhout, Belgium
| | - Davide Bolignano
- European Renal Best Practice Methods Support Team, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium CNR-IBIM, Clinical Epidemiology and Physiopathology of Renal Diseases and Hypertension of Reggio Calabria, Calabria, Italy
| | - Ionut Nistor
- European Renal Best Practice Methods Support Team, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium Nephrology Department, Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi, Romania
| | - Henk Bilo
- Departments of Internal Medicine, Isala Clinics, Zwolle, the Netherlands University Medical Center, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Luigi Gnudi
- Unit For Metabolic Medicine, Department Diabetes and Endocrinology, Cardiovascular Division, Guy's and St Thomas Hospital, King's College London, London SE1 9NH, UK
| | - James Heaf
- Department of Nephrology B, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Wim van Biesen
- European Renal Best Practice Methods Support Team, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium Renal Division, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
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Scheen AJ. Pharmacokinetic considerations for the treatment of diabetes in patients with chronic kidney disease. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2013; 9:529-50. [PMID: 23461781 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2013.777428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION People with chronic kidney disease (CKD) of stages 3 - 5 (creatinine clearance < 60 ml/min) represent ≈ 25% of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), but the problem is underrecognized or neglected in clinical practice. However, most oral antidiabetic agents have limitations in case of renal impairment (RI), either because they require a dose adjustment or because they are contraindicated for safety reasons. AREAS COVERED The author performed an extensive literature search to analyze the influence of RI on the pharmacokinetics (PK) of glucose-lowering agents and the potential consequences for clinical practice. EXPERT OPINION As a result of PK interferences and for safety reasons, the daily dose should be reduced according to glomerular filtration rate (GFR) or even the drug is contraindicated in presence of severe CKD. This is the case for metformin (risk of lactic acidosis) and for many sulfonylureas (risk of hypoglycemia). At present, however, the exact GFR cutoff for metformin use is controversial. New antidiabetic agents are better tolerated in case of CKD, although clinical experience remains quite limited for most of them. The dose of DPP-4 inhibitors should be reduced (except for linagliptin), whereas both the efficacy and safety of SGLT2 inhibitors are questionable in presence of CKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- André J Scheen
- University of Liège, Division of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Disorders, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, CHU Sart Tilman (B35), Liège, Belgium.
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Blake PG, Bargman JM, Brimble KS, Davison SN, Hirsch D, McCormick BB, Suri RS, Taylor P, Zalunardo N, Tonelli M. Clinical Practice Guidelines and Recommendations on Peritoneal Dialysis Adequacy 2011. Perit Dial Int 2012; 31:218-39. [PMID: 21427259 DOI: 10.3747/pdi.2011.00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Peter G Blake
- Division of Nephrology,1 University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
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11
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Reply. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2011. [DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfr043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Chakkera HA, Bodner JK, Heilman RL, Mulligan DC, Moss AA, Mekeel KL, Mazur MJ, Hamawi K, Ray RM, Beck GL, Reddy KS. Outcomes after simultaneous pancreas and kidney transplantation and the discriminative ability of the C-peptide measurement pretransplant among type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Transplant Proc 2011; 42:2650-2. [PMID: 20832562 DOI: 10.1016/j.transproceed.2010.04.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Accepted: 04/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Earlier studies reporting outcomes after pancreas transplantation have included a combination of C-peptide cutoffs and clinical criteria to classify type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, because the kidney is the major site for C-peptide catabolism, C-peptide is unreliable to discriminate the type of diabetes in patients with kidney disease. METHODS To improve the discriminative power and better classify the type of diabetes, we used a composite definition to identify T2DM: presence of C-peptide, negative glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody, absence of diabetic ketoacidosis, and use of oral hypoglycemics. Additionally among T2DM patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), body mass index of <30 kg/m(2) and use of <1 u/kg of insulin per day were selection criteria for suitablity for simultaneous pancreas and kidney transplantation (SPKT). We compared graft and patient survival between T1DM and T2DM after SPKT. RESULTS Our study cohort consisted of 80 patients, 10 of whom were assigned as T2DM based on our study criteria. Approximately 15% of patients with T1DM had detectable C-peptide. Cox regression survival analyses found no significant differences in allograft (pancreas and kidney) or patient survival between the 2 groups. The mean creatinine clearance at 1 year estimated by the modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) equation was not significantly different between the 2 groups. Among those with 1 year of follow-up, all patients with T2DM had glycosylate hemoglobin of <6.0 at 1 year versus 92% of those with T1DM. CONCLUSION SPKT should be considered in the therapeutic armamentarium for renal replacement in selected patients with T2DM and ESRD. Use of C-peptide measurements for ESRD patients can be misleading as the sole criterion to determine the type of diabetes.
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Weir MA, Gomes T, Mamdani M, Juurlink DN, Hackam DG, Mahon JL, Jain AK, Garg AX. Impaired renal function modifies the risk of severe hypoglycaemia among users of insulin but not glyburide: a population-based nested case–control study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010; 26:1888-94. [DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfq649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Reilly JB, Berns JS. Selection and dosing of medications for management of diabetes in patients with advanced kidney disease. Semin Dial 2010; 23:163-8. [PMID: 20210915 DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-139x.2010.00703.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is a leading cause of kidney disease worldwide. A large and expanding array of treatments for diabetes is available to improve glycemic control, including newer classes of drugs, such as thiazolidinediones and incretin-based therapies. The presence of impaired kidney function with reduced glomerular filtration rate should influence choices, dosing, and monitoring of hypoglycemic agents, as some agents require a dosing adjustment in patients with kidney disease and some are entirely contraindicated. This article reviews the clinical use of insulin and other antidiabetic therapies, focusing on pharmacokinetic properties and dosing in patients with advanced kidney disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- James B Reilly
- Renal-Electrolyte and Hypertension Division, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Lubowsky ND, Siegel R, Pittas AG. Management of glycemia in patients with diabetes mellitus and CKD. Am J Kidney Dis 2007; 50:865-79. [PMID: 17954300 DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2007.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2007] [Accepted: 08/21/2007] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Noah D Lubowsky
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Tufts-New England Medical Center, Boston, MA 02111, USA
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Blicklé JF, Doucet J, Krummel T, Hannedouche T. Diabetic nephropathy in the elderly. DIABETES & METABOLISM 2007; 33 Suppl 1:S40-55. [PMID: 17702098 DOI: 10.1016/s1262-3636(07)80056-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Renal impairment is frequent in aged diabetic patients, notably with type 2 diabetes. It results from a multifactorial pathogeny, particularly the combined actions of hyperglycaemia, arterial hypertension and ageing. Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is associated with an increased cardiovascular mortality. DN often leads to end stage renal failure (ESRF) which causes specific problems of decision and practical organization of extra-renal epuration in diabetic and aged patients. In the absence of renal biopsy, clinical signs are often insufficient to assess the diabetic origin of a nephropathy in an elderly diabetic patient. Prevention of DN is principally based on tight glycaemic and blood pressure control. The progression of renal lesions can be retarded by strict blood pressure control, notably by blocking of the renin-angiotensin system, if well tolerated in aged patients. It is absolutely necessary to avoid the worsening of renal lesions by potentially nephrotoxic products, notably non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and iodinated contrast media. At the stage of renal failure, it is important to adapt the antidiabetic treatment, and in the majority of the cases, to switch to insulin when glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is below 30 ml/mn/1.73 m2.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Blicklé
- Service de médecine interne, diabète et maladies métaboliques, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.
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Abstract
Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at high risk for adverse drug reactions and drug-drug interactions. Drug dosing in these patients often proves to be a difficult task. Renal dysfunction-induced changes in human pathophysiology regularly results may alter medication pharmacodynamics and handling. Several pharmacokinetic parameters are adversely affected by CKD, secondary to a reduced oral absorption and glomerular filtration; altered tubular secretion; and reabsorption and changes in intestinal, hepatic, and renal metabolism. In general, drug dosing can be accomplished by multiple methods; however, the most common recommendations are often to reduce the dose or expand the dosing interval, or use both methods simultaneously. Some medications need to be avoided all together in CKD either because of lack of efficacy or increased risk of toxicity. Nevertheless, specific recommendations are available for dosing of certain medications and are an important resource, because most are based on clinical or pharmacokinetic trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Gabardi
- Department of Pharmacy Services, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA 02115-6110, USA.
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Snyder RW, Berns JS. Use of insulin and oral hypoglycemic medications in patients with diabetes mellitus and advanced kidney disease. Semin Dial 2005; 17:365-70. [PMID: 15461745 DOI: 10.1111/j.0894-0959.2004.17346.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is recognized as a leading cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in the United States. There is a vast array of medications used to treat diabetes, including insulin and the sulfonylureas, as well as newer classes of drugs such as the thiazolidinediones and biguanides. In patients with reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR), it is necessary to decrease the dosage of some of these drugs, while others are best avoided altogether. Accumulation of either the parent compound or its metabolites can result in symptomatic hypoglycemia, or in the case of metformin, significant lactic acidosis. In this article we will review the use of insulin and the various classes of oral medications used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus, focusing on their pharmacokinetic properties and dosing in patients with advanced kidney disease.
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MESH Headings
- Administration, Oral
- Blood Glucose/analysis
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/complications
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/diagnosis
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/drug therapy
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/complications
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/diagnosis
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/drug therapy
- Diabetic Nephropathies/etiology
- Diabetic Nephropathies/prevention & control
- Female
- Humans
- Hyperglycemia/prevention & control
- Hypoglycemic Agents/therapeutic use
- Insulin/therapeutic use
- Insulin Resistance
- Kidney Failure, Chronic/etiology
- Kidney Failure, Chronic/prevention & control
- Kidney Failure, Chronic/therapy
- Male
- Prognosis
- Renal Dialysis/adverse effects
- Renal Dialysis/methods
- Risk Assessment
- Severity of Illness Index
- Treatment Outcome
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard W Snyder
- Department of Medicine, Renal, Electrolyte, and Hypertension Division, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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Abstract
Fluoroquinolones are generally regarded as safe antimicrobial agents with relatively few adverse effects or drug interactions. Thus, they enjoy widespread use for treatment of community- and hospital-acquired infections. Although uncommon, hypoglycemia has been reported with all the fluoroquinolones and appears to occur most frequently in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who are receiving therapy with oral hypoglycemics. The exact mechanism of this effect is unknown but is postulated to be a result of blockage of adenosine 5'-triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels in pancreatic beta-cell membranes. We report a case of fatal hypoglycemia related to levofloxacin administration in an elderly patient with diabetes. As with other fluoroquinolones, levofloxacin can cause profound and prolonged hypoglycemia. Clinicians should be cognizant of this potential adverse effect in patients with diabetes who are receiving levofloxacin therapy.
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Dorne JLCM, Walton K, Renwick AG. Human variability for metabolic pathways with limited data (CYP2A6, CYP2C9, CYP2E1, ADH, esterases, glycine and sulphate conjugation). Food Chem Toxicol 2004; 42:397-421. [PMID: 14871582 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2003.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2003] [Accepted: 10/13/2003] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Human variability in the kinetics of a number of phase I (CYP2A6, CYP2C9, CYP2E1, alcohol dehydrogenase and hydrolysis) and phase II enzymes (glycine and sulphate conjugation) was analysed using probe substrates metabolised extensively (>60%) by these routes. Published pharmacokinetic studies (after oral and intravenous dosing) in healthy adults and available data on subgroups of the population (effects of ethnicity, age and disease) were abstracted using parameters relating primarily to chronic exposure [metabolic and total clearances, area under the plasma concentration time-curve (AUC)] and acute exposure (C(max)). Interindividual differences in kinetics for all these pathways were low in healthy adults ranging from 21 to 34%. Pathway-related uncertainty factors to cover the 95th, 97.5th and 99th centiles of healthy adults were derived for each metabolic route and were all below the 3.16 kinetic default uncertainty factor in healthy adults, with the possible exception of CYP2C9*3/*3 poor metabolisers (based on a very limited number of subjects). Previous analyses of other pathways have shown that neonates represent the most susceptible subgroup and this was true also for glycine conjugation for which an uncertainty factor of 29 would be required to cover 99% of this subgroup. Neonatal data were not available for any other pathway analysed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L C M Dorne
- Clinical Pharmacology Group, University of Southampton, Biomedical Sciences Building, Bassett Crescent East, Southampton SO16 7PX, UK
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Covic AM, Schelling JR, Constantiner M, Iyengar SK, Sedor JR. Serum C-peptide concentrations poorly phenotype type 2 diabetic end-stage renal disease patients. Kidney Int 2000; 58:1742-50. [PMID: 11012908 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2000.00335.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A homogeneous patient population is necessary to identify genetic factors that regulate complex disease pathogenesis. In this study, we evaluated clinical and biochemical phenotyping criteria for type 2 diabetes in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) probands of families in which nephropathy is clustered. C-peptide concentrations accurately discriminate type 1 from type 2 diabetic patients with normal renal function, but have not been extensively evaluated in ESRD patients. We hypothesized that C-peptide concentrations may not accurately reflect insulin synthesis in ESRD subjects, since the kidney is the major site of C-peptide catabolism and would poorly correlate with accepted clinical criteria used to classify diabetics as types 1 and 2. METHODS Consenting diabetic ESRD patients (N = 341) from northeastern Ohio were enrolled. Clinical history was obtained by questionnaire, and predialysis blood samples were collected for C-peptide levels from subjects with at least one living diabetic sibling (N = 127, 48% males, 59% African Americans). RESULTS Using clinical criteria, 79% of the study population were categorized as type 1 (10%) or type 2 diabetics (69%), while 21% of diabetic ESRD patients could not be classified. In contrast, 98% of the patients were classified as type 2 diabetics when stratified by C-peptide concentrations using criteria derived from the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (DCCT) and UREMIDIAB studies. Categorization was concordant in only 70% of ESRD probands when C-peptide concentration and clinical classification algorithms were compared. Using clinical phenotyping criteria as the standard for comparison, C-peptide concentrations classified diabetic ESRD patients with 100% sensitivity, but only 5% specificity. The mean C-peptide concentrations were similar in diabetic ESRD patients (3.2 +/- 1.9 nmol/L) and nondiabetic ESRD subjects (3.5 +/- 1.7 nmol/L, N = 30, P = NS), but were 2.5-fold higher compared with diabetic siblings (1.3 +/- 0.7 nmol/L, N = 30, P < 0.05) with normal renal function and were indistinguishable between type 1 and type 2 diabetics. Although 10% of the diabetic ESRD study population was classified as type 1 diabetics using clinical criteria, only 1.5% of these patients had C-peptide levels less than 0.20 nmol/L, the standard cut-off used to discriminate type 1 from type 2 diabetes in patients with normal renal function. However, the criteria of C-peptide concentrations> 0.50 nmol/L and diabetes onset in patients who are more than 38 years old identify type 2 diabetes with a 97% positive predictive value in our ESRD population. CONCLUSIONS Accepted clinical criteria, used to discriminate type 1 and type 2 diabetes, failed to classify a significant proportion of diabetic ESRD patients. In contrast to previous reports, C-peptide levels were elevated in the majority of type 1 ESRD diabetic patients and did not improve the power of clinical parameters to separate them from type 2 diabetic or nondiabetic ESRD subjects. Accurate classification of diabetic ESRD patients for genetic epidemiological studies requires both clinical and biochemical criteria, which may differ from norms used in diabetic populations with normal renal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Covic
- Departments of Medicine, Physiology and Biophysics, and Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44109-1998, USA
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Krepinsky J, Ingram AJ, Clase CM. Prolonged sulfonylurea-induced hypoglycemia in diabetic patients with end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2000; 35:500-5. [PMID: 10692277 DOI: 10.1016/s0272-6386(00)70204-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Renal impairment is a recognized risk factor for prolonged hypoglycemia, but predisposing characteristics in patients with advanced renal impairment have not been studied. We observed prolonged hypoglycemia in a number of patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and conducted a case-control study at two Canadian centers to identify such risk factors. Through hospital, pharmacy, and dialysis program records, we retrospectively identified 7 case patients and 31 controls with ESRD and type 2 diabetes using oral hypoglycemic monotherapy. Control patients had no history of hospital admission for prolonged hypoglycemia. All case patients and 28 controls were receiving glyburide (glibenclamide in Europe); the remainder were treated with tolbutamide. Duration of intravenous treatment for hypoglycemia ranged from 28 to 256 hours, with 83 g to 2 kg of glucose administered per episode. Preceding treatment with glyburide varied from 2 days to 13 years. Univariate analyses showed a recent decline in oral intake (odds ratio [OR], 81; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.6 to 1,840), previous hypoglycemic episodes (OR, 15; 95% CI, 0.77 to 297), longer duration of diabetes (22 versus 12 years; P = 0.008), and a history of cerebrovascular disease (OR, 7. 0; 95% CI, 1.0 to 47) to be associated with prolonged hypoglycemia. No association between prolonged hypoglycemia and age, sex, beta blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, oral hypoglycemic dose, or duration of treatment was identified. This study describes the potentially devastating effect of sulfonylurea-based oral hypoglycemic therapy in ESRD. Patients at greatest risk appear to be those with reduced intake, previous hypoglycemic episodes, and longer duration of diabetes. We describe the mechanisms for observed hypoglycemia and suggest that alternative drugs may be considered in this patient group.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Krepinsky
- McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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