Recovery of heavy metals and stabilization of spent hydrotreating catalyst using a glass-ceramic matrix

Predicted structure and selectivity of 3d transition metal complexes with glutamic N,N-bis(carboxymethyl) acid

Structure and selectivity of 3d transition metal complexes with glutamic N,N-bis(carboxymethyl) acid are analyzed and predicted from DFT calculations.

Study of the Incorporation of Ladle Furnace Slag in the Manufacture of Cold In-Place Recycling with Bitumen Emulsion

Cold in-place recycling with bitumen emulsion is a good environmental option for road conservation. The technique produces lower CO₂ emissions because the product is manufactured and spread in the same location as the previous infrastructure, and its mixing with bitumen emulsion occurs at room temperature. Adding materials with cementitious characteristics gives the final mixture greater resistance and durability, and incorporating an industrial by-product such as ladle furnace slag (of which cementitious characteristics have been corroborated by various authors) enables the creation of sustainable, resistant pavement. This paper describes the incorporation of ladle furnace slag in reclaimed asphalt pavements (RAP) to execute in-place asphalt pavement recycling with bitumen emulsion. Various test groups of samples with increasing percentages of emulsion were created to study both the density of the mixtures obtained, and their dry and post-immersion compressive strength. To determine these characteristics, the physical and chemical properties of the ladle furnace slag and the reclaimed asphalt pavements were analyzed, as well as compatibility with the bitumen emulsion. The aforementioned tests define an optimal combination of RAP (90%), ladle furnace slag (10%), water (2.6%), and emulsion (3.3%), which demonstrated maximum values for compressive strength of the dry and post-immersion bituminous mixture. These tests therefore demonstrate the suitability of ladle furnace slag for cold in-place recycling with bitumen emulsion.

Recycle, Recover and Repurpose Strategy of Spent Li-ion Batteries and Catalysts: Current Status and Future Opportunities

The disposal of hazardous waste of any form has become a great concern for the industrial sector due to increased environmental awareness. The increase in usage of hydroprocessing catalysts by petrochemical industries and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in portable electronics and electric vehicles will soon generate a large amount of scrap and create significant environmental problems. Like general electronic wastes, spent catalysts and LIBs are currently discarded in municipal solid waste and disposed of in landfills in the absence of policy and feasible technology to drive alternatives. Such inactive catalyst materials and spent LIBs not only contain not only hazardous heavy metals but also toxic and carcinogenic chemicals. Besides polluting the environment, these systems (spent catalysts and LIBs) contain valuable metals such as Ni, Mo, Co, Li, Mn, Rh, Pt, and Pd. Therefore, the extraction and recovery of these valuable metals has significant importance. In this Review, we have summarized the strategies used to recover valuable (expensive) as well as cheap metals from secondary resources-especially spent catalysts and LIBs. The first section contains the background and sources of LIBs and catalyst scraps with their current recycling status, followed by a brief explanation of metal recovery methods such as pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and biometallurgy. The recent advances achieved in these methods are critically summarized. Thus, the Review provides a guide for the selection of adequate methods for metal recovery and future opportunities for the repurposing of recovered materials.

Transformation of hazardous lead into aluminosilicate ceramics: structure evolution and lead leaching

This study investigated crystallization mechanisms for the formation of lead aluminosilicate by sintering lead stabilization with kaolin-based precursors. PbAl₂Si₂O₈ was found to be the only stable lead aluminosilicate in low-PbO system and demonstrates its highly intrinsic resistance to acid attack in leaching test. A three-stage PbAl₂Si₂O₈ formation mechanism was supported by the results of the changing temperature in the system. Amorphization of sintered products was observed in both PbO/kaolinite and PbO/mullite systems at 600-700°C. When the temperature was increased to 750-900°C, the crystallochemical formation of lead aluminosilicates (i.e., Pb₄Al₄Si₃O₁₆, Pb₆Al₆Si₂O₂₁, and PbAl₂Si₂O₈) was observed. Pb₄Al₄Si₃O₁₆ and Pb₆Al₆Si₂O₂₁ were found to be the intermediate phases at 700-900°C. Finally, PbAl₂Si₂O₈ was found to be the only crystallite phase to host Pb at above 950°C. A maximum of 80% and 96.7% Pb can be incorporated into PbAl₂Si₂O₈ in PbO/kaolinite and PbO/mullite systems, respectively, but the final products exhibited different microstructures. To reduce environmental hazard of lead, this strategy demonstrated a preferred mechanism of immobilizing lead into PbAl₂Si₂O₈ structure via kaolin-based precursors.

Transformation of hazardous lead into lead ferrite ceramics: Crystal structures and their role in lead leaching

This study quantitatively determined the transformation of lead into lead ferrite ceramics and examined the influence of structural defects in lead ferrites (i.e. Pb₂Fe₂O₅, PbFe₄O₇ and PbFe₁₂O₁₉) on lead leaching. Mechanisms of metal incorporation were examined from quantifying the phase compositions of lead ferrites in the products of sintering lead oxide with hematite. At low-temperature of 700°C, Pb was preferentially incorporated into the Pb₂Fe₂O₅ crystals, and the incorporation efficiency ranged from 25.7 to 97.5% depending on different Pb/Fe molar ratios. By increasing temperatures to 750-850°C, Pb₂Fe₂O₅ was subsequently reacted with hematite for the formation of PbFe₄O₇ and PbFe₁₂O₁₉ in Pb/Fe of 1/4 and 1/12 systems. PbFe₁₂O₁₉ was found to be the high-temperature (1000°C) stable phase for incorporating lead, and the incorporation efficiency ranged from 28.6 to 92.1% by different Pb/Fe molar ratios. Leaching tests demonstrated that PbFe₁₂O₁₉ was more resistant to acid attack than Pb₂Fe₂O₅ and PbFe₄O₇. The crystal structural defects in Pb₂Fe₂O₅ and PbFe₄O₇ were determined to be the factors influencing their intrinsic phase durability. On the other hand, PbFe₁₂O₁₉ was relatively free of structural defects and was found to be the preferred stabilization product to reduce the environmental hazard posed by lead.

Chelation technology: a promising green approach for resource management and waste minimization

Green chemical engineering recognises the concept of developing innovative environmentally benign technologies to protect human health and ecosystems. In order to explore this concept for minimizing industrial waste and for reducing the environmental impact of hazardous chemicals, new greener approaches need to be adopted for the extraction of heavy metals from industrial waste. In this review, a range of conventional processes and new green approaches employed for metal extraction are discussed in brief. Chelation technology, a modern research trend, has shown its potential to develop sustainable technology for metal extraction from various metal-contaminated sites. However, the interaction mechanism of ligands with metals and the ecotoxicological risk associated with the increased bioavailability of heavy metals due to the formation of metal-chelant complexes is still not sufficiently explicated in the literature. Therefore, a need was felt to provide a comprehensive state-of-the-art review of all aspects associated with chelation technology to promote this process as a green chemical engineering approach. This article elucidates the mechanism and thermodynamics associated with metal-ligand complexation in order to have a better understanding of the metal extraction process. The effects of various process parameters on the formation and stability of complexes have been elaborately discussed with respect to optimizing the chelation efficiency. The non-biodegradable attribute of ligands is another important aspect which is currently of concern. Therefore, biotechnological approaches and computational tools have been assessed in this review to illustrate the possibility of ligand degradation, which will help the readers to look for new environmentally safe mobilizing agents. In addition, emerging trends and opportunities in the field of chelation technology have been summarized and the diverse applicability of chelation technology in metal extraction from contaminated sites has also been reviewed.

Development of an immobilization process for heavy metal containing galvanic solid wastes by use of sodium silicate and sodium tetraborate

Heavy metal containing sludges from wastewater treatment plants of electroplating industries are designated as hazardous waste since their improper disposal pose high risks to environment. In this research, heavy metal containing sludges of electroplating industries in an organized industrial zone of Istanbul/Turkey were used as real-sample model for development of an immobilization process with sodium tetraborate and sodium silicate as additives. The washed sludges have been precalcined in a rotary furnace at 900°C and fritted at three different temperatures of 850°C, 900°C and 950°C. The amounts of additives were adjusted to provide different acidic and basic oxide ratios in the precalcined sludge-additive mixtures. Leaching tests were conducted according to the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure Method 1311 of US-EPA. X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS) and flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (FAAS) have been used to determine the physical and chemical changes in the products. Calculated oxide molar ratios in the precalcined sludge-additive mixtures and their leaching results have been used to optimize the stabilization process and to determine the intervals of the required oxide ratios which provide end-products resistant to leaching procedure of US-EPA. The developed immobilization-process provides lower energy consumption than sintering-vitrification processes of glass-ceramics.

Metal stabilization mechanism of incorporating lead-bearing sludge in kaolinite-based ceramics

The feasibility and mechanism of incorporating simulated lead-laden sludge into low-cost ceramic products was investigated by observing the reaction of lead with two kaolinite-based precursors under sintering conditions. To investigate the phase transformation process of lead, lead oxide (PbO) mixed with a kaolinite or mullite precursor were fired at 500-950°C for 3h. Detailed X-ray diffraction analysis of sintered products revealed that both precursors had crystallochemically incorporated lead into the lead feldspar (PbAl(2)Si(2)O(8)) crystalline structure. By mixing lead oxide with kaolinite, lead feldspar begins to crystallize at 700°C; maximum incorporation of lead into this structure occurred at 950°C. However, two intermediate phases, Pb(4)Al(4)Si(3)O(16) and a polymorph of lead feldspar, were detected at temperatures between 700 and 900°C. By sintering lead oxide with the mullite precursor, lead feldspar was detected at temperatures above 750°C, and an intermediate phase of Pb(4)Al(4)Si(3)O(16) was observed in the temperature range of 750-900°C. This study compared the lead leachabilities of PbO and lead feldspar using a prolonged leaching test (at pH 2.9 for 23d) modified from the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure. The results indicate the superiority of lead feldspar in stabilizing lead and suggest a promising and reliable strategy to stabilize lead in ceramic products.

Zinc stabilization efficiency of aluminate spinel structure and its leaching behavior

The feasibility of immobilizing zinc in contaminated soil was investigated by observing the role of zinc reacting with aluminum-rich materials under thermal conditions. To observe the process of zinc incorporation, mixtures of ZnO with alumina precursors (γ-Al(2)O(3) and α-Al(2)O(3)) were fired at 750-1450 °C. Both precursors crystallochemically incorporated zinc into the ZnAl(2)O(4) spinel structure. The incorporation efficiencies of a 3 h sintering scheme were first quantitatively determined by Rietveld refinement analysis of X-ray diffraction data. Different zinc incorporation behavior by these two precursors was revealed, although both resulted in nearly 100% transformation at the highest temperature. Different product microstructures and thermal densification effects were found by observing the sintered products from these two precursors. The leaching performances of ZnO and ZnAl(2)O(4) were compared by a prolonged acid leaching test for 22 d. The leachability analysis pointed to superiority of the ZnAl(2)O(4) structure in stabilizing zinc, suggesting a promising technique for incorporating zinc into the aluminum-rich product. Finally, the sludge collected from water treatment works was calcined and used as an aluminum-rich material to test its ability to stabilize zinc. Successful formation of ZnAl(2)O(4) indicated good potential for employing waterworks sludge to thermally immobilize hazardous metals as a promising waste-to-resource strategy.

Phase transformation and its role in stabilizing simulated lead-laden sludge in aluminum-rich ceramics

This study investigated the mechanisms of stabilizing lead-laden sludge by blending it into the production process of aluminum-rich ceramics, and quantitatively evaluated the prolonged leachability of the product phases. Sintering experiments were performed using powder mixtures of lead oxide and γ-alumina with different Pb/Al molar ratios within the temperature range of 600-1000 °C. By mixing lead oxide with γ-alumina at a Pb/Al molar ratio of 0.5, the formation of PbAl2O4 is initiated at 700 °C, but an effective formation was observed when the temperature was above 750 °C for a 3-h sintering time. The formation and decomposition of the intermediate phase, Pb9Al8O21, was detected in this system within the temperature range of 800-900 °C. When the lead oxide and γ-alumina mixture was sintered with a Pb/Al molar ratio of 1:12, the PbAl12O19 phase was found at 950 °C and effectively formed at 1000 °C. In this system, an intermediate phase Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2 was observed at the temperature range of 700-950 °C. Over longer leaching periods, both PbAl2O4 and PbAl12O19 were superior to lead oxide in immobilizing lead. Comparing the leaching results of PbAl2O4 and PbAl12O19 demonstrated the higher intrinsic resistance of PbAl12O19 against acid attack. To reduce metal mobility, this study demonstrated a preferred mechanism of stabilizing lead in the aluminate structures by adding metal-bearing waste sludge to the ceramic processing of aluminum-rich products.

Copper stabilization via spinel formation during the sintering of simulated copper-laden sludge with aluminum-rich ceramic precursors

The feasibility of incorporating copper-laden sludge into low-cost ceramic products, such as construction ceramics, was investigated by sintering simulated copper-laden sludge with four aluminum-rich ceramic precursors. The results indicated that all of these precursors (γ-Al(2)O(3), corundum, kaolinite, mullite) could crystallochemically stabilize the hazardous copper in the more durable copper aluminate spinel (CuAl(2)O(4)) structure. To simulate the process of copper transformation into a spinel structure, CuO was mixed with the four aluminum-rich precursors, and fired at 650-1150 °C for 3 h. The products were examined using powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopic techniques. The efficiency of copper transformation among crystalline phases was quantitatively determined through Rietveld refinement analysis of the XRD data. The sintering experiment revealed that the optimal sintering temperature for CuAl(2)O(4) formation was around 1000 °C and that the efficiency of copper incorporation into the crystalline CuAl(2)O(4) structure after 3 h of sintering ranged from 40 to 95%, depending on the type of aluminum precursor used. Prolonged leaching tests were carried out by using acetic acid with an initial pH value of 2.9 to leach CuO and CuAl(2)O(4) samples for 22 d. The sample leachability analysis revealed that the CuAl(2)O(4) spinel structure was more superior to stabilize copper, and suggested a promising and reliable technique for incorporating copper-laden sludge or its incineration ash into usable ceramic products. Such results also demonstrated the potential of a waste-to-resource strategy by using waste materials as part of the raw materials with the attainable temperature range used in the production of ceramics.

Bioleaching kinetics and multivariate analysis of spent petroleum catalyst dissolution using two acidophiles

Bioleaching studies were conducted to evaluate the recovery of metal values from waste petroleum catalyst using two different acidophilic microorganisms, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. Various leaching parameters such as contact time, pH, oxidant concentration, pulp densities, particle size, and temperature were studied in detail. Activation energy was evaluated from Arrhenius equation and values for Ni, V and Mo were calculated in case of both the acidophiles. In both cases, the dissolution kinetics of Mo was lower than those of V and Ni. The lower dissolution kinetics may have been due to the formation of a sulfur product layer, refractoriness of MoS(2) or both. Multivariate statistical data were presented to interpret the leaching data in the present case. The significance of the leaching parameters was derived through principle component analysis and multi linear regression analyses for both iron and sulfur oxidizing bacteria.

A novel process to treat spent petroleum catalyst using sulfur-oxidizing lithotrophs

A novel process was developed using sulfur-oxidizing bacteria to extract metal values like Ni, V and Mo from spent petroleum catalyst. Bacteria were grown in elemental sulfur media for five day and after filtering, the filtrate was used for leaching purpose. Effect of different parameters such as contact time, particle size, pulp density and lixiviant composition were studied to find out the extent of metal leaching during the leaching process. XRD analysis proved the existence of V in oxide form, Ni in sulfide form, Mo both in oxide as well as sulfide forms, and sulfur in elemental state only. In all the cases studied Ni and V showed higher leaching efficiency compared to Mo. The low Mo leaching rate may be either due to formation of impervious sulfur layer or refractoriness of sulfides or both. Leaching kinetics followed dual rate, initial faster followed by slower. Dissolution mechanism was explained on the basis of both surface and pore diffusion rate. The leaching kinetics followed 1st order reaction rate. Finally, multiple linear regression analysis was carried out to compare the observed and calculated leaching percentage values for three metals.

Metal recovery from spent hydrodesulfurization catalysts using a combined acid-leaching and electrolysis process

This study focuses on recovering valuable metals from spent hydrodesulfurization (HDS) catalysts using a combined acid-leaching and fluidized-bed electrolysis process. The electrolytic cell was equipped with a glass bead medium, an iridium oxide mesh anode, and a stainless steel plate cathode. An acid solution consisting of concentrated HNO3/H2SO4/HCl with a volume ratio of 2:1:1 was found to be better than the other tested solution (HNO3/H2SO4=1:1) to leach the metals. For the three-acid mixture, the best solid/liquid ratio and leaching time were 40 g/L and 1 h, respectively, at 70 degrees C; under this condition, the leaching yields of target metals (Mo, Ni, and V) in the 1st stage of leaching reached 90, 99, and 99%, respectively, much higher than those in the 2nd/3rd/4th stages. When this acid leachate was electrolyzed for 2 h at 2 A constant current (current density=approximately 35.7 mA/cm2), a stable cell voltage of 5 V was observed. The electrolytic recoveries of Mo, Ni, and V were approximately 15, 61, and 66%, respectively, but extending the electrolysis time from 2 to 4 h did not increase the recoveries. For this operation, the total recoveries (leaching yieldxelectrolytic recovery) of Mo, Ni, and V were approximately 14, 60, and 65%, respectively.

Emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from thermal pre-treatment of waste hydrodesulfurization catalysts

Despite increasing environmental concerns and stringent limitations on the sulfur content in fuels, many waste hydrodesulfurization (HDS) catalysts containing Co, Mo, Ni and V are generated in the petroleum refining process. To recover valuable metals in the waste HDS catalysts via hydrometallurgy, thermal treatment is usually performed first to remove contaminants (residual oil, carbon and sulfur) present on the surface of catalysts. In this study, the mass partitions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in different media (aqueous, particulate and gaseous) were quantified in order to determine the efficiency of three different air pollution control devices, cooling unit, filter and glass cartridge, on PAH removal. An afterburner and two furnace temperatures were used to observe the effect on the PAH contents of the treated residues. Results show that total-PAH content in treated residues decreased with the pyrolysis temperature of the primary furnace, while those generated in flue gases were destroyed by the afterburner at an efficiency of approximately 95%. In addition, the thermal process converts high molecular weight PAHs to low molecular weight PAHs, and the afterburner temperature involved (1200 degrees C) was high enough to prohibit the generation of high molecular weight PAHs (HM-PAHs), leading to the domination of low molecular weight PAHs (LM-PAHs) in flue gases, while treated residues were dominated by HM-PAHs. Finally, information on metal contents and their concentrations in the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure in waste HDS catalyst and thermal treated residues are examined as an index of the potential for metal recovery.

Selective recovery of Mo, Co and Al from spent Co/Mo/gamma-Al2O3 catalyst: effect of calcination temperature

A combination of pyro and hydrometallurgical process has been proposed to selectively recover molubdenum, cobalt and aluminium from the spent catalyst containing 12.3% Mo; 31.8% Al; 2.38% Co; 9.5% S and 2.9% C. Before a two-stage alkali-acid leaching process to selectively target Mo, Co and Al from the uncrushed sample, the spent catalyst was calcined at different temperatures. Characterization of different calcined samples was carried out by different instrumental analysis like XRD, TG/DTA, IR and SEM in order to understand the structural changes and dissolution behavior of spent catalyst. It was found that calcination at 500 degrees C preferred for spent catalyst roasting since the surface and pore structures obtained by roasting at this temperature facilitated dissolution of calcined spent catalyst in the leachant. Mo was selectively separated and recovered from the leach liquor by carbon adsorption method; whereas, Al and Co were separated by an organo-phosphinic-based extractant, Cyanex 272. In the whole process, 95.9% Mo, 89.6% Co and 39.8% Al was recovered from the spent catalyst. Finally, a complete process flowsheet has been presented.

Use of adapted Aspergillus niger in the bioleaching of spent refinery processing catalyst

Spent refinery processing catalyst is listed as a hazardous waste; the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) extracts of the catalyst are found to contain heavy metals at concentrations exceeding the regulated levels. In the present investigation, Aspergillus niger was adapted to single metal ions Ni, Mo or Al (at 100-2,000 mg/L in steps of 100mg/L) and then to a mixture of Ni, Mo and Al (at a mass ratio of 1:2:6, as approximately present in the spent catalyst). Adaptation experiments with single metals showed that the fungus could tolerate up to 1,000 mg/L Ni, 1,200 mg/L Mo and 2,000 mg/L Al. In the presence of a mixture of these metals, the fungus was able to tolerate up to 100mg/L Ni, 200mg/L Mo and 600 mg/L Al. One-step bioleaching experiments with 1 wt% spent catalyst (of particle size <37 microm) were carried out using un-adapted and various adapted fungal strains. In contrast to the adapted strains, the un-adapted strain showed no growth in the presence of the catalyst. Ni:Mo:Al-adapted strain was the most efficient in the leaching of metals from the catalyst (at 78.5% Ni, 82.3% Mo and 65.2% Al) over 30 days due to its tolerance to the toxic elements at 1 wt%. More importantly, the Ni:Mo:Al-adapted strain was capable of bioleaching up to 3 wt% spent catalyst. The TCLP extracts of the spent catalyst after bioleaching using the Ni:Mo:Al-adapted strain showed the concentrations of Ni and Mo were well within the regulated levels.

Bioleaching of spent refinery processing catalyst using Aspergillus niger with high-yield oxalic acid

A spent refinery processing catalyst was physically and chemically characterized, and subjected to one-step and two-step bioleaching processes using Aspergillus niger. During bioleaching of the spent catalysts of various particle sizes ("as received", 100-150 microm, <37 microm, and x =2.97 (average) microm) and pulp densities, the biomass dry weight and pH were determined. The corresponding leach liquor was analysed for excreted organic acids along with heavy metal values extracted from the catalyst. Chemical characterization of the spent catalyst confirmed the presence of heavy metal including Al (33.3%), Ni (6.09%) and Mo (13.72%). In general, the presence of the spent catalyst caused a decrease in the biomass yield and an increase in oxalic acid secretion by A. niger. The increase in oxalic acid secretion with a decrease in the catalyst particle size (up to <37 microm) led to corresponding increase in the extraction of metal values. The highest extraction of metal values from the spent catalyst (at 1% w/v pulp density and particle size <37 microm) were found to be 54.5% Al, 58.2% Ni and 82.3% Mo in 60 days of bioleaching. Oxalic acid secretion by A. niger in the presence of the spent catalyst was stimulated using 2-[N-Morpholino]ethanesulfonic acid (MES) buffer (pH 6), which resulted in comparable metal extraction (58% Al, 62.8% Ni and 78.9% Mo) in half the time required by the fungus in the absence of the buffer. Spent medium of A. niger grown in the absence and in the presence of MES buffer were found to leach almost similar amounts of Al and Ni, except Mo for which the spent medium of buffered culture was significantly more effective than the non-buffered culture. Overall, this study shows the possible use of bioleaching for the extraction of metal resources from spent catalysts. It also demonstrated the advantages of buffer-stimulated excretion of organic acids by A. niger in bioleaching of the spent catalyst.

Options and processes for spent catalyst handling and utilization

The quantity of spent hydroprocessing catalysts discarded as solid wastes in the petroleum refining industries has increased remarkably in recent years due to a rapid growth in the hydroprocessing capacity to meet the rising demand for low-sulfur fuels. Due to their toxic nature, spent hydroprocessing catalysts have been branded as hazardous wastes, and the refiners are experiencing pressure from environmental authorities to handle them safely. Several alternative methods such as reclamation of metals, rejuvenation and reuse, disposal in landfills and preparation of useful materials using spent catalysts as raw materials are available to deal with the spent catalyst problem. The technical feasibility as well as the environmental and economic aspects of these options are reviewed. In addition, details of two bench-scale processes, one for rejuvenation of spent hydroprocessing catalysts, and the other for producing non-leachable synthetic aggregate materials that were developed in this laboratory, are presented in this paper.