Magnetic resonance microscopy studies of cation diffusion in cartilage

Magnetic resonance analysis of capillary formation reaction front dynamics in alginate gels

The formation of heterogeneous structures in biopolymer gels is of current interest for biomedical applications and is of fundamental interest to understanding the molecular level origins of structures generated from disordered solutions by reactions. The cation-mediated physical gelation of alginate by calcium and copper is analyzed using magnetic resonance measurements of spatially resolved molecular dynamics during gel front propagation. Relaxation time and pulse-field gradient methods are applied to determine the impact of ion front motion on molecular translational dynamics. The formation of capillaries in alginate copper gels is correlated to changes in translational dynamics.

Macromolecular concentrations in bovine nasal cartilage by Fourier transform infrared imaging and principal component regression

Fourier transform infrared imaging (FT-IRI) and principal component regression (PCR) were used to quantitatively determine collagen and proteoglycan concentrations in bovine nasal cartilage (BNC). An infrared spectral library was first established by obtaining eleven infrared spectra from a series of collagen and chondroitin 6-sulfate mixed in different ratios. FT-IR images were obtained from 6-μm-thick sections of BNC specimens at 6.25-μm pixel size. The spectra from the FT-IR images were imported into a PCR program to obtain the relative concentrations of collagen and proteoglycan in BNC, based on the spectral library of pure chemicals. These PCR-determined concentrations agreed with the molecular concentrations determined biochemically using an enzyme digestion assay. Use of the imaging approach revealed that proteoglycan loss in the specimens occurs first at the surface of the tissue block when compared with the middle portion of the tissue block. The quantitative correlation of collagen and proteoglycan revealed that their infrared absorption peak areas at 1338 and 1072-855 cm(-1) can only be used as qualitative indicators of the molecular contents. The use of PCR with FT-IRI offers an accurate tool to spatially determine the distributions of macromolecular concentration in cartilage.

Influence of decreasing nutrient path length on the development of engineered cartilage

OBJECTIVE

Chondrocyte-seeded agarose constructs of 4mm diameter (2.34 mm thickness) develop spatially inhomogeneous material properties with stiffer outer edges and a softer central core suggesting nutrient diffusion limitations to the central construct region [Guilak F, Sah RL, Setton LA. Physical regulation of cartilage metabolism. In: Mow VC, Hayes WC, Eds. Basic Orthopaedic Biomechanics, Philadelphia 1997;179-207.]. The effects of reducing construct thickness and creating channels running through the depth of the thick constructs were examined.

METHODS

In Study 1, the properties of engineered cartilage of 0.78 mm (thin) or 2.34 mm (thick) thickness were compared. In Study 2, a single nutrient channel (1 mm diameter) was created in the middle of each thick construct. In Study 3, the effects of channels on larger 10 mm diameter, thick constructs were examined.

RESULTS

Thin constructs developed superior mechanical and biochemical properties than thick constructs. The channeled constructs developed significantly higher mechanical properties vs control channel-free constructs while exhibiting similar glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen content. Collagen staining suggested that channels resulted in a more uniform fibrillar network. Improvements in constructs of 10 mm diameter were similarly observed.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that more homogeneous tissue-engineered cartilage constructs with improved mechanical properties can be achieved by reducing their thickness or incorporating macroscopic nutrient channels. Our data further suggests that these macroscopic channels remain open long enough to promote this enhanced tissue development while exhibiting the potential to refill with cell elaborated matrix with additional culture time. Together with reports that <3 mm defects in cartilage heal in vivo and that irregular holes are associated with clinically used osteochondral graft procedures, we anticipate that a strategy of incorporating macroscopic channels may aid the development of clinically relevant engineered cartilage with functional properties.

An analysis of the integration between articular cartilage and nondegradable hydrogel using magnetic resonance imaging

A hydrogel is a highly hydrated polymer gel suitable for use as a scaffold for tissue engineering. One important application is to the repair of cartilage defects due to injury or osteoarthritis. Integration of the hydrogel with surrounding tissue is critical for the long-term functionality of the implant; however direct visualization of integration is difficult and invasive. Accordingly, we used MRI to noninvasively investigate the integration of hydrogel in cartilage. Two integration methods were assessed: (1) cartilage-initiated and (2) chemical, using chondroitin sulphate-methacrylate-aldehyde (CS-MA-ald) as an adhesive. These were compared to a control group, that is, standard, nonintegrated hydrogel photopolymerization. Spatial variation of the transverse relaxation time, T(2), across the transition region was used to determine the effectiveness of integration. In the CS-MA-ald group only, two interfaces were found. This provides evidence of an intermediate adhesive layer between hydrogel and cartilage. Second, the thickness of the transition region between hydrogel to cartilage in the CS-MA-ald group was 1.32 mm as compared to 1.20 mm and 1.17 mm in the tissue-initiated and nonintegrated groups, respectively. We interpret this as a more gradual transition region of hydrogel to cartilage and hence a greater degree of integration when an adhesive layer is present.

Modeling of neutral solute transport in a dynamically loaded porous permeable gel: implications for articular cartilage biosynthesis and tissue engineering

A primary mechanism of solute transport in articular cartilage is believed to occur through passive diffusion across the articular surface, but cyclical loading has been shown experimentally to enhance the transport of large solutes. The objective of this study is to examine the effect of dynamic loading within a theoretical context, and to investigate the circumstances under which convective transport induced by dynamic loading might supplement diffusive transport. The theory of incompressible mixtures was used to model the tissue (gel) as a mixture of a gel solid matrix (extracellular matrix/scaffold), and two fluid phases (interstitial fluid solvent and neutral solute), to solve the problem of solute transport through the lateral surface of a cylindrical sample loaded dynamically in unconfined compression with frictionless impermeable platens in a bathing solution containing an excess of solute. The resulting equations are governed by nondimensional parameters, the most significant of which are the ratio of the diffusive velocity of the interstitial fluid in the gel to the solute diffusivity in the gel (Rg), the ratio of actual to ideal solute diffusive velocities inside the gel (Rd), the ratio of loading frequency to the characteristic frequency of the gel (f), and the compressive strain amplitude (epsilon 0). Results show that when Rg > 1, Rd < 1, and f > 1, dynamic loading can significantly enhance solute transport into the gel, and that this effect is enhanced as epsilon 0 increases. Based on representative material properties of cartilage and agarose gels, and diffusivities of various solutes in these gels, it is found that the ranges Rg > 1, Rd < 1, correspond to large solutes, whereas f > 1 is in the range of physiological loading frequencies. These theoretical predictions are thus in agreement with the limited experimental data available in the literature. The results of this study apply to any porous hydrated tissue or material, and it is therefore plausible to hypothesize that dynamic loading may serve to enhance solute transport in a variety of physiological processes.

[Study of diffusion in cartilage by the "PFG" (pulsed-field gradient NMR) technique]

Since cartilage does not contain any blood vessels, diffusion is the most important transport mechanism for its supply. Although several methods are available for the measurement of diffusion, this study focuses exclusively on NMR methods. Besides the "classic" water diffusion, the diffusion behaviour of ions and polymers in cartilage is also described. In all cases, and at short observation times, diffusion is mostly determined by the water content of the sample. However, the variation of the observation time allows to obtain information also on the internal structure of cartilage. In addition, it is discussed to which extent the individual techniques allow conclusions with respect to degenerative joint diseases, and under which in vivo conditions they can be applied.

Imaging of collagen and proteoglycan in cartilage sections using Fourier transform infrared spectral imaging

OBJECTIVE

To test the hypothesis that Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectral imaging, coupled with multivariate data processing techniques, can image the spatial distribution of matrix constituents in native and engineered cartilage samples.

METHODS

Tissue sections from native and trypsin-digested bovine nasal cartilage (BNC) and from engineered cartilage, generated by chick sternal chondrocytes grown in a hollow fiber bioreactor, were placed either on calcium fluoride windows for FTIR analysis or gelatinized microscope slides for histologic analysis. Based on the assumption that cartilage is predominantly chondroitin sulfate (CS) and type II collagen, chemical images were extracted from FTIR spectral imaging data sets using 2 multivariate methods: the Euclidean distance algorithm and a least-squares approach.

RESULTS

Least-squares analysis of the FTIR data of native BNC yielded a collagen content of 54 +/- 13% and a CS content of 37 +/- 16% (mean +/- SD). Euclidean distance analysis of measurements made on trypsin-digested BNC demonstrated only trace amounts of CS. For engineered cartilage, the CS content was significantly lower (15 +/- 5%), while the collagen content (73 +/- 6%) was significantly higher than biochemically determined values (CS 34%, collagen 5%, protein 61%). These differences are due to the fact that the dimethylmethylene blue assay overestimated the CS content of the tissue because it is not specific for CS, while the FTIR spectral imaging technique overestimated the collagen content because it lacks specificity for different proteins.

CONCLUSION

FTIR spectral imaging combines histology-like spatial localization with the quantitative capability of bulk chemical analysis. For molecules with a unique spectral signature, such as CS, the FTIR technique coupled with multivariate analysis can define a unique spatial distribution. However, for some applications, the lack of specificity of this technique for different types of proteins may be a limitation.

Diffusion of paramagnetically labeled proteins in cartilage: enhancement of the 1-D NMR imaging technique

Quantifying the diffusive transport of large molecules in avascular cartilage tissue is important both for planning potential pharamacological treatments and for gaining insight into the molecular-scale structure of cartilage. In this work, the diffusion coefficients of gadolinium-DTPA and Gd-labeled versions of four proteins-lysozyme, trypsinogen, ovalbumin, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) with molecular weights of 14,300, 24,000, 45,000, and 67,000, respectively-have been measured in healthy and degraded calf cartilage. The experimental technique relies on the effect of the paramagnetic on the relaxation properties of the surrounding water, combined with the time course of a 1-dimensional spatial profile of the water signal in the cartilage sample. The enhanced technique presented here does not require a prior measurement of the relaxivity of the paramagnetic compound in the sample of interest. The data are expressed as the ratio of the diffusion coefficient of a compound in cartilage to its diffusion coefficient in water. For healthy cartilage, this ratio was 0.34 +/- 0.07 for Gd-DTPA, the smallest compound, and fell to 0.3 +/- 0.1 for Gd-lysozyme, 0.08 +/- 0.04 for Gd-trypsinogen, and 0.07 +/- 0.04 for Gd-ovalbumin. Gd-BSA did not appear to enter healthy cartilage tissue beyond a surface layer. After the cartilage had been degraded by 24-h trypsinization, these ratios were 0.60 +/- 0.03 for Gd-DTPA, 0.40 +/- 0.08 for Gd-lysozyme, 0.42 +/- 0.09 for Gd-trypsinogen, 0.16 +/- 0.14 for Gd-ovalbumin, and 0.11 +/- 0.05 for Gd-BSA. Thus, degradation of the cartilage led to increases in the diffusion coefficient of up to fivefold for the Gd-labeled proteins. These basic transport parameters yield insights on the nature of pore sizes and chemical-matrix interactions in the cartilage tissue and may prove diagnostically useful for identifying the degree and nature of damage to cartilage.

Response of engineered cartilage tissue to biochemical agents as studied by proton magnetic resonance microscopy

OBJECTIVE

To test the hypothesis that magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) results correlate with the biochemical composition of cartilage matrix and can therefore be used to evaluate natural tissue development and the effects of biologic interventions.

METHODS

Chondrocytes harvested from day-16 chick embryo sterna were inoculated into an MRI-compatible hollow-fiber bioreactor. The tissue that formed over a period of 2-4 weeks was studied biochemically, histologically, and with MRI. Besides natural development, the response of the tissue to administration of retinoic acid, interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), and daily dosing with ascorbic acid was studied.

RESULTS

Tissue wet and dry weight, glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content, and collagen content all increased with development time, while tissue hydration decreased. The administration of retinoic acid resulted in a significant reduction in tissue wet weight, proteoglycan content, and cell number and an increase in hydration as compared with controls. Daily dosing with ascorbic acid increased tissue collagen content significantly compared with controls, while the administration of IL-1beta resulted in increased proteoglycan content. The water proton longitudinal and transverse relaxation rates correlated well with GAG and collagen concentrations of the matrix as well as with tissue hydration. In contrast, the magnetization transfer value for the tissue correlated only with total collagen. Finally, the self-diffusion coefficient of water correlated with tissue hydration.

CONCLUSION

Parameters derived from MR images obtained noninvasively can be used to quantitatively assess the composition of cartilage tissue generated in a bioreactor. We conclude that MRI is a promising modality for the assessment of certain biochemical properties of cartilage in a wide variety of settings.

Scanning electrochemical microscopy as a local probe of oxygen permeability in cartilage

The use of scanning electrochemical microscopy, a high-resolution chemical imaging technique, to probe the distribution and mobility of solutes in articular cartilage is described. In this application, a mobile ultramicroelectrode is positioned close ( approximately 1 microm) to the cartilage sample surface, which has been equilibrated in a bathing solution containing the solute of interest. The solute is electrolyzed at a diffusion-limited rate, and the current response measured as the ultramicroelectrode is scanned across the sample surface. The topography of the samples was determined using Ru(CN)(6)(4-), a solute to which the cartilage matrix was impermeable. This revealed a number of pit-like depressions corresponding to the distribution of chondrocytes, which were also observed by atomic force and light microscopy. Subsequent imaging of the same area of the cartilage sample for the diffusion-limited reduction of oxygen indicated enhanced, but heterogeneous, permeability of oxygen across the cartilage surface. In particular, areas of high permeability were observed in the cellular and pericellular regions. This is the first time that inhomogeneities in the permeability of cartilage toward simple solutes, such as oxygen, have been observed on a micrometer scale.