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Schoeler T, Ferris J, Winstock AR. Rates and correlates of cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms in over 230,000 people who use cannabis. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:369. [PMID: 36068202 PMCID: PMC9448725 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-02112-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis, a widely used psychoactive substance, can trigger acute cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms (CAPS) in people who use cannabis (PWUC). To assess rates and correlates of CAPS requiring emergency medical treatment, we analyzed data from an international sample of PWUC (n = 233,475). We found that 0.47% (95%CI 0.42; 0.52) PWUC reported lifetime occurrence of CAPS, defined as the occurrence of hallucinations and/or paranoia requiring emergency medical treatment following the use of cannabis. A range of factors correlated with risk of CAPS in the last year: higher rates were observed in young individuals [risk ratio (RR) 2.66, compared to older PWUC] and those residing in Denmark (RR 3.01, compared to PWUC from other countries). Furthermore, risk was elevated in those using predominantly high-potency resin (RR 2.11, compared to PWUC using herbal cannabis), those mixing cannabis with tobacco (RR 2.15, compared to PWUC not mixing with tobacco) and those with a diagnosis of psychosis (RR 14.01), bipolar (RR 4.30), anxiety (RR 2.92) and depression (RR 2.68), compared to individuals without a mental health diagnosis. Taken together, acute self-limiting psychotic symptoms in the context of cannabis use may occur in about 1 in 200 PWUC's lifetime. Some individuals could be particularly sensitive to the adverse psychological effects of cannabis, such as young individuals or those with pre-existing mental health vulnerabilities. In light of the movements towards legalization of recreational cannabis, more research should focus on the potential harms related to cannabis use, to educate PWUC and the public about risks related to its use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabea Schoeler
- Department of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland. .,Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Jason Ferris
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537The Centre for Health Services Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD Australia
| | - Adam R. Winstock
- grid.83440.3b0000000121901201Institute of Epidemiology and Health Care, University College London, London, UK ,Global Drug Survey, GDS, London, UK
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Inquimbert C, Maitre Y, Moulis E, Gremillet V, Tramini P, Valcarcel J, Carayon D. Recreational Nitrous Oxide Use and Associated Factors among Health Profession Students in France. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19095237. [PMID: 35564631 PMCID: PMC9099944 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19095237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The first aim of this study was to investigate the recreational use of nitrous oxide (N2O) among health profession students at Montpellier University (France). The second aim was to identify the factors associated with N2O use. All students in medicine, dentistry, pharmacy and midwifery of the Montpellier University were contacted by email to participate in the survey. The students answered directly online by filling out anonymously a questionnaire including demographic information and questions about N2O, illicit drugs and alcohol use. Ethical approval was granted by the ethics committee of the Montpellier University. The sample comprised 593 students (mean age = 22.3 ± 2.6 yr), with 68.6% of females. Lifetime N2O use was reported by 76.6% and frequent alcohol use by 30.5% of the respondents. The lifetime use of cannabis, 'poppers', cocaine, ecstasy and LSD was 26.8%, 54.6%, 9.6%, 10.1% and 2.0% respectively. In multivariate analysis, the substances significantly associated with lifetime N2O were alcohol drinking and 'poppers' use. With respect to this self-nominated sample, our results indicate that respondents who were alcohol drinkers, were poppers users, follow longer studies, divert medical products for recreational use or were members of a students' corporation had higher odds of lifetime N2O use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Inquimbert
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France; (P.T.); (J.V.)
- Institut Desbrest d’Epidémiologie et de Santé Publique, IDESP UMR UA11 INSERM, Université de Montpellier, 34093 Montpellier, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-666957674
| | - Yoann Maitre
- EA 2415, Aide à la Décision pour une Médecine Personnalisée, Université de Montpellier, 34093 Montpellier, France;
| | - Estelle Moulis
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France; (E.M.); (V.G.)
| | - Vincent Gremillet
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France; (E.M.); (V.G.)
| | - Paul Tramini
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France; (P.T.); (J.V.)
| | - Jean Valcarcel
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France; (P.T.); (J.V.)
| | - Delphine Carayon
- Department of Prosthodontics, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France;
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Pharmacological Characterization of 4-Methylthioamphetamine Derivatives. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25225310. [PMID: 33203055 PMCID: PMC7696343 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25225310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphetamine derivatives have been used in a wide variety of pathologies because of their pharmacological properties as psychostimulants, entactogens, anorectics, and antidepressants. However, adverse cardiovascular effects (sympathomimetics) and substance abuse problems (psychotropic and hallucinogenic effects) have limited their use. 4-Methylthioamphetamine (MTA) is an amphetamine derivative that has shown to inhibit monoamine uptake and monoamine oxidase. However, the pharmacological characterization (neurochemical, behavioral, and safety) of its derivatives 4-ethylthioamphetamine (ETA) and 4-methylthio-phenil-2-butanamine (MT-But) have not been studied. In the current experiments, we show that ETA and MT-But do not increase locomotor activity and conditioned place preference with respect to MTA. At the neurochemical level, ETA and MT-But do not increase in vivo DA release in striatum, but ETA and MT-But affect the nucleus accumbens bioaccumulation of DA and DOPAC. Regarding cardiovascular effects, the administration of MTA and ETA increased the mean arterial pressure and only ETA significantly increases the heart rate. Our results show that the pharmacological and safety profiles of MTA are modulated by changing the methyl-thio group or the methyl group of the aminoethyl chain.
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Nash C, Butzbach D, Stockham P, Scott T, Abroe G, Painter B, Gilbert J, Kostakis C. A Fatality Involving Furanylfentanyl and MMMP, with Presumptive Identification of Three MMMP Metabolites in Urine. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 43:291-298. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Revised: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Danielle Butzbach
- Forensic Science SA, Adelaide, South Australia
- Flinders University of South Australia, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, South Australia
| | - Peter Stockham
- Forensic Science SA, Adelaide, South Australia
- Flinders University of South Australia, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, South Australia
| | - Timothy Scott
- Forensic Science SA, Adelaide, South Australia
- Flinders University of South Australia, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, South Australia
| | - Greg Abroe
- Forensic Science SA, Adelaide, South Australia
| | - Ben Painter
- Forensic Science SA, Adelaide, South Australia
- Flinders University of South Australia, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, South Australia
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Rigg KK, Sharp A. Deaths related to MDMA (ecstasy/molly): Prevalence, root causes, and harm reduction interventions. JOURNAL OF SUBSTANCE USE 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/14659891.2018.1436607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Khary K. Rigg
- Department of Mental Health Law & Policy, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, College of Behavioral & Community Sciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Amanda Sharp
- College of Behavioral & Community Sciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
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Kaar SJ, Ferris J, Waldron J, Devaney M, Ramsey J, Winstock AR. Up: The rise of nitrous oxide abuse. An international survey of contemporary nitrous oxide use. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30:395-401. [PMID: 26912510 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116632375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
In recent years the recreational use of inhaled nitrous oxide gas (N2O) is becoming increasingly popular, yet little is known about the characteristics of its users or the effects they experience. This paper presents original research from the 2014 Global Drug Survey (GDS) (n=74,864). GDS runs the largest survey of recreational drug use in the world. The findings confirm N2O as a very common drug of use, in particular in the UK and US (38.6% and 29.4% lifetime prevalence). In the UK N2O was reported to be the eighth most commonly used substance. N2O was generally consumed via gas-filled balloons, at festivals and clubs where use of other substances was common. The vast majority of users use infrequently, and their use is not associated with significant harm. However, there appears to be a subpopulation of heavy users who may be using in a dependent pattern. Analysis of last year N2O users (n=4883), confirms that N2O is associated with hallucinations and confusion (which may be the desired effects) and persistent numbness and accidental injury (27.8%, 23.9%, 4.3% and 1.2% of last year users, respectively). Accidental injury is associated with the highest number of 'hits' per session, suggesting a dose-response relationship. The presence of significant harm is discussed in the light of public education on the risks of N2O use and harm-reduction strategies appropriate to N2O use. Further work needs to be completed to confirm the presence of persistent neurological symptoms in recreational users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Kaar
- Addiction CAG, South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK Global Drug Survey, London, UK
| | - Jason Ferris
- Institute for Social Science Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia ARC Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course, Institute for Social Science Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | | | - Madonna Devaney
- Institute for Social Science Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - John Ramsey
- Global Drug Survey, London, UK TICTAC Communications Ltd, St George's, University of London, London, UK
| | - Adam R Winstock
- Addiction CAG, South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK Global Drug Survey, London, UK
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7
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Hindocha C, Freeman TP, Ferris JA, Lynskey MT, Winstock AR. No Smoke without Tobacco: A Global Overview of Cannabis and Tobacco Routes of Administration and Their Association with Intention to Quit. Front Psychiatry 2016; 7:104. [PMID: 27458388 PMCID: PMC4933835 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis and tobacco are common drugs of abuse worldwide and are often used in combination through various routes of administration (ROAs). Here, we aimed to provide an overview of how cannabis and tobacco routes varied across countries and assess the impact of tobacco-based ROAs on motivation to use less cannabis, and less tobacco, in different models. A cross-sectional online survey (Global Drugs Survey 2014) was completed by 33,687 respondents (mean age = 27.9; % female = 25.9) who smoked cannabis at least once in the last 12 months. Most common ROA, frequency of cannabis/tobacco use, and questions about motivation to use less cannabis/tobacco were recorded. Tobacco-based ROA were used by 65.6% of respondents. These were most common in Europe (77.2-90.9%) and Australasia (20.7-51.6%) and uncommon in the Americas (4.4-16.0%). Vaporizer use was most common in Canada (13.2%) and the United States (11.2%). Using a non-tobacco ROA was associated with a 10.7% increase in odds for "desire to use less" tobacco (OR: 1.107, 95% CI: 1.003, 1.221), 80.6% increase in odds for "like help to use less tobacco" (OR: 1.806, 95% CI: 1.556, 2.095), and a 103.9% increase in the odds for "planning to seek help to use less tobacco" (OR: 2.039, 95% CI: 1.638, 2.539), in comparison to using a tobacco-based ROA. Associations between ROA and intentions to use less cannabis were inconsistent. Results support considerable global variation in cannabis and tobacco ROA. Tobacco routes are common, especially "joints with tobacco," especially in Europe, but not in the Americas. Non-tobacco-based routes are associated with increased motivation to change tobacco use. Interventions addressing tobacco and cannabis need to accommodate this finding and encourage non-tobacco routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandni Hindocha
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London , London , UK
| | - Tom P Freeman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London , London , UK
| | - Jason A Ferris
- Institute for Social Science Research, University of Queensland , QLD , Australia
| | - Michael T Lynskey
- Department of Addiction, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London , London , UK
| | - Adam R Winstock
- Department of Addiction, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK; South London and the Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK; Global Drugs Survey Ltd., London, UK
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8
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Winstock AR, Lawn W, Deluca P, Borschmann R. Methoxetamine: An early report on the motivations for use, effect profile and prevalence of use in a UK clubbing sample. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015; 35:212-7. [DOI: 10.1111/dar.12259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adam R. Winstock
- South London and Maudsley NHS Trust; London UK
- Addictions Clinical Academic Group; King's College London; Maudsley Hospital; London UK
- Global Drug Survey Ltd; London UK
| | - Will Lawn
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit; Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology Department; University College London; London UK
| | - Paolo Deluca
- National Addiction Centre; PO48 Institute of Psychiatry; King's College London; London UK
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9
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Morley KI, Lynskey MT, Moran P, Borschmann R, Winstock AR. Polysubstance use, mental health and high-risk behaviours: Results from the 2012 Global Drug Survey. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015; 34:427-37. [DOI: 10.1111/dar.12263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine I. Morley
- National Addictions Centre; Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience; King's College London; London UK
- Clinical Epidemiology; Farr Institute for Health Informatics Research; University College London; London UK
- Centre for Molecular, Environmental, Genetic and Analytic Epidemiology; Melbourne School of Global and Population Health; The University of Melbourne; Melbourne Australia
| | - Michael T. Lynskey
- National Addictions Centre; Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience; King's College London; London UK
| | - Paul Moran
- Health Services and Population Research Department; Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, & Neuroscience; King's College London; London UK
| | - Rohan Borschmann
- Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute; University of Melbourne; Royal Children's Hospital; Melbourne Australia
| | - Adam R. Winstock
- South London and Maudsley NHS Trust/King's College London; London UK
- Global Drug Survey; London UK
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Winstock AR, Borschmann R, Bell J. The non-medical use of tramadol in the UK: findings from a large community sample. Int J Clin Pract 2014; 68:1147-51. [PMID: 24734958 DOI: 10.1111/ijcp.12429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prescription drug misuse has become a public health problem in several developed countries. In the UK, there has been no increase in people seeking treatment for prescription drug dependence, but there has been a progressive rise in fatal overdoses involving tramadol. OBJECTIVES To explore the source, motivations for use and patterns of use of tramadol in the UK. METHODS We conducted anonymous online survey of drug use and related behaviours as part of an ongoing drug trend monitoring initiative. We included questions assessing the patterns of use, source and function of tramadol. RESULTS UK Survey respondents (n = 7360) were predominantly young (mean age 29), and 90% reported being employed or studying. Less than 1% reported past-year use of heroin or methadone, but about 1/3 reported past-year use of cocaine. 326 (5% of respondents) reported having used tramadol in the preceding year, usually obtained by prescription but in 1/3 of cases from a friend; rarely from a dealer or from the internet. Most used the drug for pain relief, but 163 respondents (44%) reported using tramadol for reasons other than pain relief - particularly, using it to relax, to sleep, to get high or to relieve boredom. Nineteen per cent took doses higher than prescribed, and 10% reported difficulty discontinuing. Twenty-eight per cent combined tramadol with alcohol or other drugs to enhance its effect. CONCLUSION Misuse and sharing of tramadol, supplied by prescription, was common.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Winstock
- Kings Health Partners, Kings College London, London, UK; Insitute of Psychiatry, Kings College London, London, UK; Global Drug Survey, London, UK
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Winstock AR, Kaar S, Borschmann R. Dimethyltryptamine (DMT): prevalence, user characteristics and abuse liability in a large global sample. J Psychopharmacol 2014; 28:49-54. [PMID: 24284475 DOI: 10.1177/0269881113513852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents original research on prevalence, user characteristics and effect profile of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a potent hallucinogenic which acts primarily through the serotonergic system. Data were obtained from the Global Drug Survey (an anonymous online survey of people, many of whom have used drugs) conducted between November and December 2012 with 22,289 responses. Lifetime prevalence of DMT use was 8.9% (n=1980) and past year prevalence use was 5.0% (n=1123). We explored the effect profile of DMT in 472 participants who identified DMT as the last new drug they had tried for the first time and compared it with ratings provided by other respondents on psilocybin (magic mushrooms), LSD and ketamine. DMT was most often smoked and offered a strong, intense, short-lived psychedelic high with relatively few negative effects or "come down". It had a larger proportion of new users compared with the other substances (24%), suggesting its popularity may increase. Overall, DMT seems to have a very desirable effect profile indicating a high abuse liability that maybe offset by a low urge to use more.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam R Winstock
- 1Addiction CAG, South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, Southwark CDAT, London, UK
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12
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Simmler LD, Rickli A, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. Monoamine transporter and receptor interaction profiles of a new series of designer cathinones. Neuropharmacology 2013; 79:152-60. [PMID: 24275046 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Revised: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Psychoactive β-keto amphetamines (cathinones) are sold as "bath salts" or "legal highs" and recreationally abused. We characterized the pharmacology of a new series of cathinones, including methedrone, 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC), 3-fluoromethcathinone (3-FMC), pentylone, ethcathinone, buphedrone, pentedrone, and N,N-dimethylcathinone. We investigated norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), and serotonin (5-HT) uptake inhibition using human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK 293) cells that express the respective human monoamine transporter, the drug-induced efflux of NE, DA, and 5-HT from monoamine-preloaded cells, and binding affinity to monoamine transporters and receptors. All of the cathinones were potent NE uptake inhibitors but differed in their DA vs. 5-HT transporter inhibition profiles and monoamine release effects. Methedrone was a more potent 5-HT than DA transporter inhibitor and released NE and 5-HT similar to para-methoxymethamphetamine (PMMA), para-methoxyamphetamine (PMA), 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA), and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). 4-MEC and pentylone equipotently inhibited all of the monoamine transporters and released 5-HT. Ethcathinone and 3-FMC inhibited NE and DA uptake and released NE, and 3-FMC also released DA similar to N-ethylamphetamine and methamphetamine. Pentedrone and N,N-dimethylcathinone were non-releasing NE and DA uptake inhibitors as previously shown for pyrovalerone cathinones. Buphedrone preferentially inhibited NE and DA uptake and also released NE. None of the cathinones bound to rodent trace amine-associated receptor 1, in contrast to the non-β-keto-amphetamines. None of the cathinones exhibited relevant binding to other monoamine receptors. In summary, we found considerable differences in the monoamine transporter interaction profiles among different cathinones and compared with related amphetamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- L D Simmler
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Hebelstrasse 2, Basel CH-4031, Switzerland
| | - A Rickli
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Hebelstrasse 2, Basel CH-4031, Switzerland
| | - M C Hoener
- Neuroscience Research, Pharmaceuticals Division, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - M E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Hebelstrasse 2, Basel CH-4031, Switzerland.
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13
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Winstock AR, Barratt MJ. Synthetic cannabis: a comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 131:106-11. [PMID: 23291209 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2012] [Revised: 11/16/2012] [Accepted: 12/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The last decade has seen the appearance of myriad novel psychoactive substances with diverse effect profiles. Synthetic cannabinoids are among the most recently identified but least researched of these substances. METHODS An anonymous online survey was conducted in 2011 using a quantitative structured research tool. Missing data (median 2%) were treated by available-case analysis. RESULTS Of 14,966 participants, 2513 (17%) reported use of synthetic cannabis. Of these, 980 (41% of 2417) reported its use in the last 12 months. Almost all recent synthetic cannabis users (99% of 975) reported ever use of natural cannabis. Synthetic cannabis reportedly had both a shorter duration of action (z=17.82, p<.001) and quicker time to peak onset of effect (z=-9.44, p<.001) than natural cannabis. Natural cannabis was preferred to synthetic cannabis by 93% of users, with natural cannabis rated as having greater pleasurable effects when high (t(930)=-37.1, p<.001, d=-1.22) and being more able to function after use (t(884)=-13.3, p<.001, d=-0.45). Synthetic cannabis was associated with more negative effects (t(859)=18.7, p<.001, d=0.64), hangover effects (t(854)=6.45, p<.001, d=0.22) and greater paranoia (t(889)=7.91, p<.001, d=0.27). CONCLUSIONS Users report a strong preference for natural over synthetic cannabis. The latter has a less desirable effect profile. Further research is required to determine longer term consequences of use and comparative dependence potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam R Winstock
- South London and Maudsley NHS Trust/Kings College London, United Kingdom; Global Drug Survey, London, United Kingdom.
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14
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Winstock AR, Barratt MJ. The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:390-3. [PMID: 23881887 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE A wide range of synthetic cannabinoid products have recently become available through the Internet and shop fronts across the globe. Concerns about the consequences of their use have been prompted by increasing reports of emergency department presentations. METHODS An anonymous global online survey was conducted using a research tool based on previous work carried out by the group. Data collection took place during a 4-week period at the end of 2011. RESULTS Among 950 last-year users, 23 (2.4%) reported having sought emergency medical treatment following the use of a synthetic cannabinoid product. The most common presentations were panic and anxiety, followed by paranoia and breathing difficulties. Recent users who reported seeking emergency medical treatment were significantly younger (median age 20 years, interquartile range 18-22) than those who did not report seeking treatment (median age 23 years, interquartile range 19-28; Mann-Whitney test, z = 2.89, p = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS Synthetic cannabinoid use appears to be associated with a high prevalence of adverse experiences among users, especially younger users. Further research is required to determine whether particular compounds carry a higher risk of harm than others and to assess potential consequences of longer term use.
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Sotomayor-Zárate R, Quiroz G, Araya KA, Abarca J, Ibáñez MR, Montecinos A, Guajardo C, Núñez G, Fierro A, Moya PR, Iturriaga-Vásquez P, Gómez-Molina C, Gysling K, Reyes-Parada M. 4-Methylthioamphetamine Increases Dopamine in the Rat Striatum and has Rewarding EffectsIn Vivo. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2012; 111:371-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2012.00926.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ramón Sotomayor-Zárate
- Millennium Science Nucleus in Stress and Addiction and Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias; Universidad de Valparaíso; Valparaíso Chile
| | - Gabriel Quiroz
- Millennium Science Nucleus in Stress and Addiction and Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Katherine A. Araya
- Millennium Science Nucleus in Stress and Addiction and Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Jorge Abarca
- Millennium Science Nucleus in Stress and Addiction and Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - María R. Ibáñez
- Millennium Science Nucleus in Stress and Addiction and Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Alejandro Montecinos
- Faculty of Chemistry and Biology; University of Santiago de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Carlos Guajardo
- Faculty of Chemistry and Biology; University of Santiago de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Gabriel Núñez
- PhD Program in Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology; University of Santiago de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Angélica Fierro
- Faculty of Chemistry and Biology; University of Santiago de Chile; Santiago Chile
- Millennium Institute for Cell Dynamics and Biotechnology; Santiago Chile
| | - Pablo R. Moya
- Laboratory of Clinical Science; National Institute of Mental Health; Bethesda MD USA
| | - Patricio Iturriaga-Vásquez
- Millennium Institute for Cell Dynamics and Biotechnology; Santiago Chile
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences; University of Chile; Santiago Chile
| | | | - Katia Gysling
- Millennium Science Nucleus in Stress and Addiction and Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Miguel Reyes-Parada
- Millennium Institute for Cell Dynamics and Biotechnology; Santiago Chile
- Faculty of Medical Sciences; School of Medicine, University of Santiago de Chile; Santiago Chile
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud; Universidad Autónoma de Chile; Santiago Chile
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Winstock AR, Mitcheson L, Gillatt DA, Cottrell AM. The prevalence and natural history of urinary symptoms among recreational ketamine users. BJU Int 2012; 110:1762-6. [PMID: 22416998 DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-410x.2012.11028.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Study Type--Symptom prevalence (prospective cohort) Level of Evidence 1b. What's known on the subject? and What does the study add? Case series have described lower urinary tract symptoms associated with ketamine use including severe pain, frequency, haematuria and dysuria. Little is known regarding the frequency of symptoms, relationship of symptoms with dose and frequency of use and natural history of symptoms once the ketamine user has stopped. This study describes the prevalence of ketamine use in a population of recreational drug users in a dance music setting. It shows a dose-frequency relationship with ketamine use. It shows that urinary symptoms associated with recreational ketamine use may lead to a considerable demand on health resources in the primary-, secondary- and emergency-care settings. It shows that symptoms may improve once ketamine use is decreased. OBJECTIVE • To investigate the prevalence and natural history of urinary symptoms in a cohort of recreational ketamine users. PATIENTS AND METHODS • A purposeful sampling technique was used. • Between November 2009 and January 2010 participants were invited to undertake an on-line questionnaire promoted by a national dance music magazine and website. • Data regarding demographics and illicit drug-use were collected. • Among respondents reporting recent ketamine use, additional information detailing their ketamine use, experience of urinary symptoms and use of related healthcare services was obtained. RESULTS • In all, 3806 surveys were completed, of which 1285 (33.8%) participants reported ketamine use within the last year. • Of the ketamine users, 17% were found to be dependent on the drug; 26.6% (340) of recent ketamine users reported experiencing urinary symptoms. • Urinary symptoms were significantly related to both dose of ketamine used and frequency of ketamine use. • Of 251 users reporting their experience of symptoms over time in relationship to their use of ketamine, 51% reported improvement in urinary symptoms upon cessation of use with only eight (3.8%) reporting deterioration after stopping use. CONCLUSIONS • Urinary tract symptoms are reported in over a quarter of regular ketamine users. • A dose and frequency response relationship has been shown between ketamine use and urinary symptoms. • Both users and primary-care providers need to be educated about urinary symptoms that may arise in ketamine users. A multi-disciplinary approach promoting harm reduction, cessation and early referral is needed to manage individuals with ketamine-associated urinary tract symptoms to avoid progression to severe and irreversible urological pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam R Winstock
- Addiction CAG, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust St. George's Hospital Medical School, London, UK
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17
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Abstract
AIMS Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) is a novel synthetic stimulant drug that has recently become popular in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in Europe. It has a short history of human consumption and little is known about its prevalence and pattern of use. This study aimed to obtain preliminary data on its use and effects among dance drug users in the United Kingdom. DESIGN Cross-sectional anonymous online survey of mephedrone recruited as part of larger study exploring patterns of drug use among those associated with the dance music scene. Setting UK-based dance music and clubbing website. PARTICIPANTS A total of 947 ever users of mephedrone recruited as part of a wider study on dance drug use patterns. MEASUREMENTS Assessment of demographics, ever and current drug use and patterns and selected effects following use of mephedrone. FINDINGS A total of 947 (41.3%) of 2295 participants reported ever having used mephedrone. Mephedrone was the sixth most frequently used drug in the last month after tobacco, alcohol, cannabis, cocaine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Users were typically younger (P < 0.001) and male (P < 0.01); 15.1% reported using weekly or more frequently; 49.5% reported using between 0.5 and 1 g during a typical session; 69.5% reported that intranasal use was the most common route of use. Intranasal use was associated with increased abuse liability; 54.6% of those who have also used cocaine reported that the quality of the high obtained with mephedrone was better, with those using intranasally being significantly more likely than those who took the drug orally to report that mephedrone was more addictive (P < 0.02) and more risky (P < 0.02) than cocaine. Route of use was unrelated to any stimulant-related adverse effect apart from palpitations (P < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS Mephedrone appears to be used primarily intranasally and to have comparable abuse potential to cocaine, with more than half those who use both reporting that mephedrone gives a better quality high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam R Winstock
- King's College London, Department of Addictions, Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK.
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18
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Bossong MG, Brunt TM, Van Dijk JP, Rigter SM, Hoek J, Goldschmidt HMJ, Niesink RJM. mCPP: an undesired addition to the ecstasy market. J Psychopharmacol 2010; 24:1395-401. [PMID: 19304863 DOI: 10.1177/0269881109102541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A new ecstasy-like substance, meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP), has been detected in street drugs in the Netherlands. Theoretically, mCPP possesses the potential to become a non-neurotoxic alternative for methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), the regular psychoactive substance of ecstasy. Since its introduction on the Dutch market of synthetic drugs, the percentage of mCPP-containing tablets has increased, including both tablets that contain only mCPP and tablets containing a combination of mCPP and MDMA. These tablets occur in many different colours, shapes and sizes and with various logos, making it impossible to distinguish mCPP-containing tablets from regular MDMA tablets. In addition, the reports of users concerning the effects of mCPP are predominantly negative. All these aspects together lead to the conclusion that mCPP is an undesired addition to the ecstasy market from the user's perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Bossong
- Drug Information and Monitoring System (DIMS), Trimbos Institute for Mental Health and Addiction, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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19
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Vogels N, Brunt TM, Rigter S, van Dijk P, Vervaeke H, Niesink RJM. Content of ecstasy in the Netherlands: 1993-2008. Addiction 2009; 104:2057-66. [PMID: 19804461 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02707.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The present paper outlines the results of analyses carried out on the content of tablets sold as ecstasy, collected in the Netherlands by the Drugs Information Monitoring System (DIMS) from January 1993 to December 2008. METHODS During a period of 16 years, the DIMS analysed the content of 33 006 tablets sold as ecstasy that were handed in by numerous individual (potential) substance users. The DIMS results were compared with the results from various seized tablets to determine whether the DIMS is a monitor of the ecstasy consumer market. RESULTS The DIMS system appears to be a market monitor that gives an accurate reflection of what is actually available on the hidden Dutch ecstasy market. During 16 years of monitoring, the purity [tablets containing only 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)] was lowest around 1997. During this time-period many tablets contained other substances in addition to or instead of MDMA [e.g. 3,4-methylene-dioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylene-dioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) and N-methyl-a-(1,3-benzodixol-5-yl)-2-butamine (MBDB), amphetamine and caffeine]. From 1998 to 2008, the number of high-dose tablets (> or =106 mg MDMA per tablet) gradually increased. The same holds true for the proportion of tablets that contained only MDMA, reaching the highest levels in 2000 and 2004. After 2004, the purity of ecstasy tablets decreased again, caused mainly by a growing proportion of tablets containing meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP). CONCLUSIONS The DIMS results provide valuable qualitative information on the content of ecstasy tablets in the Netherlands, and its changes throughout the years. Moreover, the results were used for national and international risk assessments and important warning and prevention activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeltje Vogels
- Department of Drug Monitoring, Program Drug Information and Monitoring System, Trimbos Institute (Netherlands Institute for Mental Health and Addiction), Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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20
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21
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Identifying the Perceived and Diagnosed Prevalence of Ecstasy Dependence Among Club Rave Attendees. J Ethn Subst Abuse 2008. [DOI: 10.1300/j233v03n04_03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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22
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Quinn ST, Guiry PJ, Schwab T, Keenan AK, McBean GJ. Blockade of noradrenaline transport abolishes 4-methylthioamphetamine-induced contraction of the rat aorta in vitro. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 26:335-44. [PMID: 16968472 DOI: 10.1111/j.1474-8673.2006.00373.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize the effects of 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA) on contractility and noradrenaline (NA) transport and release in the isolated rat aorta. Descending thoracic aortic rings were isolated from male Wistar rats (220-240 g) and the effect of 4-MTA on contractility was measured by isometric force displacement. 4-MTA (0.1 microm-1 mm) induced a concentration-dependent contraction of aortic rings, with a pD(2) of 4.40 +/- 0.38, and an E(max) of 0.80 +/- 0.05 g tension. The alpha(1)-adrenoceptor antagonist, prazosin (1 microm) and alpha(2) antagonist, yohimbine (1 microm) inhibited maximal contraction to 100 microm 4-MTA by 45.0 +/- 6.7% and 53.5 +/- 7.1% of control values respectively, whereas the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) antagonist, ketanserin (100 nm) had no effect on the 4-MTA-mediated contraction. The specific NA transport inhibitor, nisoxetine (1 microm) abolished contraction of the aorta by 4-MTA. 4 Nisoxetine-sensitive [(3)H]-NA transport in aortic rings was measured over a concentration range of 0-5 microm [(3)H]-NA, and had a maximal rate of transport (V(max)) of 0.77 +/- 0.07 pmol [(3)H]-NA min(-1) mg(-1) protein and a Michaelis affinity constant (K(M)) of 2.3 +/- 0.5 microm. 4-MTA inhibited nisoxetine-sensitive [(3)H]-NA transport with a pIC(50) of 6.16 +/- 0.18 and the pIC(50) for inhibition of nisoxetine-sensitive [(3)H]-NA transport by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) was 6.83 +/- 0.13. 4-MTA (1-100 microm) significantly stimulated release of pre-loaded [(3)H]-NA from aortic rings and 4-MTA-induced [(3)H]-NA release was inhibited by 1 microm nisoxetine. These data suggest that 4-MTA causes contraction of the rat aorta in vitro by a mechanism that is consistent with an ability to cause release of NA at the level of the NA transporter. It is concluded that 4-MTA has the potential to increase the extracellular concentration of NA peripherally as well as centrally, and that this may cause adverse cardiovascular effects in its users.
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Quinn
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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23
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Kenyon SL, Ramsey JD, Lee T, Johnston A, Holt DW. Analysis for Identification in Amnesty Bin Samples from Dance Venues. Ther Drug Monit 2005; 27:793-8. [PMID: 16306857 DOI: 10.1097/01.ftd.0000180227.04137.3c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The analysis of unknown substances discarded in amnesty bins, first described by Ramsey et al, from a large central London club and 7 smaller clubs in Manchester, UK are described. The contents of the bins were collected between July 2003 and March 2004. Solid dosage formulations were identified using the TICTAC database, chemical tests, and GC-MS screening. Drugs that could not be readily identified were subjected to other analytical techniques. The goal was to document the current range of drugs available on the dance scene and compare the findings between the London club, which had been the subject of a previous survey, and Manchester clubs. More than 1000 tablets, capsules, and powder doses were discarded in the amnesty bins. Tablets containing only MDMA (ecstasy) were found to be >94% and >84% of the total in London and Manchester, respectively. Although the quantities of tablets and powders recovered were different between London and Manchester, the proportions of the drugs were remarkably similar. The most common drugs found in powders in London and Manchester respectively were cocaine (29%, 40%), amphetamine (25%, 26%), ketamine (19%, 20%), and MDMA (19%, 11%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Susannah L Kenyon
- King's College, St. Georges Hospital Medical School, London, United Kingdom.
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24
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Abstract
Recently, two new ecstasy-like substances, methylone and mCPP, were found in street drugs in the Netherlands by the Drugs Information and Monitoring System (DIMS). Methylone (3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone) is the main ingredient of a new liquid designer drug that appeared on the Dutch drug market, called 'Explosion'. mCPP (meta-chlorophenylpiperazine) is a substance often used as a probe for the serotonin function in psychiatric research, and has now been found in street drugs, both in tablets and powders. Methylone as well as mCPP act on monoaminergic systems, resembling MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), with mCPP mainly affecting the serotonin system. The subjective effects of both new substances exhibit subtle differences with those of MDMA. Only little is known about the harmfulness of both methylone and mCPP. However, because of similarities between these substances and MDMA, risks common to MDMA cannot be excluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Bossong
- Drugs Information and Monitoring System (DIMS), Trimbos Institute for Mental Health and Addiction, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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25
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McCambridge J, Mitcheson L, Winstock A, Hunt N. Five-year trends in patterns of drug use among people who use stimulants in dance contexts in the United Kingdom. Addiction 2005; 100:1140-9. [PMID: 16042644 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.001127.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To describe and evaluate trends in the use of stimulant drugs over a 5-year period using an under-studied data collection method. DESIGN Repeated-measures cross-sectional survey. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Annual magazine-based survey targeting people who use stimulant drugs in dance contexts. MEASUREMENTS Life-time use prevalence (ever used), age of first use, current use prevalence (any use within the last month) and extent of use within the last month (number of days used) for a range of stimulant drugs. Additional measures of quantity of ecstasy used were also collected. FINDINGS Trends in life-time and current prevalence over time have been detected and comparisons made between different stimulant drugs. Evidence is obtained of broad stability in patterns of stimulant use in respect of age of first use and frequency of use among ongoing users. Despite an apparent reduction in the current prevalence of ecstasy use, the proportion of heavy users (usually >4 pills per session) has more than doubled between 1999 and 2003. CONCLUSIONS This purposively sampled population study has yielded time trend data broadly consistent with other indicators, where they exist, and also has demonstrable potential to identify new drug trends. Further comparisons of purposive samples and randomly formed samples are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jim McCambridge
- National Addiction Centre, The Maudsley/Institute of Psychiatry, London, UK.
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26
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Abstract
This review summarizes the latest literature on "party" or "club" drugs, defined as MDMA, GHB, ketamine, and Rohypnol, as published from 2002 to early 2005. Club drugs have been categorized as being used at raves and dance parties. The literature shows that each drug has different properties, users, and settings. Each drug has different adverse effects and requires different acute care protocols. Although these drugs were identified early, scientific information about them, including the toxicological tests to identify them, is still evolving. Increasing numbers of studies on the short- and long-term effects of these drugs on humans are being published, but because of limitations on research using human subjects, they may not always be as rigorous as desired and can be cited by drug users to discredit findings of harm. The lack of research-based information on these drugs has led to the emergence of web sites that may or may not provide accurate data. Evaluated chemical dependency treatment protocols using the latest research for each of these different drugs are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Carlisle Maxwell
- The Gulf Coast Addiction Technology Transfer Center, The School of Social Work, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78703, USA.
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27
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Khorana N, Pullagurla MR, Dukat M, Young R, Glennon RA. Stimulus effects of three sulfur-containing psychoactive agents. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2004; 78:821-6. [PMID: 15301941 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2004.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2003] [Revised: 02/17/2004] [Accepted: 05/28/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Two agents gaining popularity on the illicit drug market are the phenylalkylamines 4-MTA and 2C-T-7 [or 1-(4-methylthiophenyl)-2-aminopropane and 2-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-n-propylthiophenyl)-1-aminoethane, respectively]. At this time, there exists a paucity of information on the behavioral actions of these sulfur-containing agents. The present investigation examined these agents, and the N-monomethyl analog of 4-MTA (i.e., 4-MTMA), in tests of stimulus generalization (substitution) using a two-lever drug discrimination task with groups of rats trained to discriminate either the hallucinogen DOM [1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylphenyl)-2-aminopropane], the stimulant cocaine, or the empathogen MDMA from vehicle. 4-MTA and its N-monomethyl analog 4-MTMA (ED50 = 0.8 mg/kg in both cases) substituted only for the MDMA stimulus, whereas 2C-T-7 (ED50 = 0.8 mg/kg) substituted only for the DOM stimulus. Thus, at the doses examined, 4-MTA and 4-MTMA appear to be MDMA-like agents, and 2C-T-7 seems best classified as a DOM-like hallucinogen. These results provide additional data that extend the structure-activity relationships of phenylalkylamines and that are consistent with what little is currently known about the action of 4-MTA and 2C-T-7 in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nantaka Khorana
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0540, USA
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28
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Schifano F. A bitter pill. Overview of ecstasy (MDMA, MDA) related fatalities. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 173:242-8. [PMID: 14673568 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-003-1730-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2003] [Accepted: 11/21/2003] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The issue of ecstasy-related fatalities has extensively attracted the attention of both the media and the general public, but less so of the scientific literature. OBJECTIVES The aim of the present review is to focus on the epidemiological, clinical and pharmacological issues related to ecstasy fatalities. RESULTS Possibly due to a number of different reasons, the rates of ecstasy-related deaths seem to have peaked in recent years. MDMA metabolism is regulated by the levels of CYP2D6 and COMT (both exhibit some genetic polymorphism), and range of activity of these enzymes may account for some inter-individual differences in terms of toxic responses to the drug. A small increase in MDMA dosage can lead to a significant rise in drug plasma concentration. Due to their tolerance to MDMA psychoactive effects, some individuals may binge with dosages that may be the cause of serious concern. In experienced users, a reverse tolerance phenomenon can also be observed. Together with ecstasy, most of the misusers take a number of different compounds and the possible rationale of this style of consumption is commented upon here. Frequently, the lethal complications observed after acute MDMA administration can be the consequence of the occurrence of a serotonin syndrome and/or of sympathomimetic overstimulation (both conditions are exacerbated by environmentally induced overheating). CONCLUSIONS A number of methodological problems can contribute to making difficult the interpretation of the role played by ecstasy in so-called ecstasy-related deaths, especially so if accurate information is not available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Schifano
- Department of Mental Health-Addictive Behaviour, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London, SW17 ORE, UK.
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Yacoubian GS, Miller S, Pianim S, Kunz M, Orrick E, Link T, Palacios WR, Peters RJ. Toward an ecstasy and other club drug (EOCD) prevention intervention for rave attendees. JOURNAL OF DRUG EDUCATION 2004; 34:41-59. [PMID: 15468747 DOI: 10.2190/qqct-61h5-cl3f-fvq3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A growing body of recent research has identified that "rave" attendees are at high risk for the use of "club drugs," such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or "ecstasy"). Rave attendees, however, comprise only one of several club-going populations. In the current study, we explore the prevalence of ecstasy and other club drug (EOCD) use among a sample of club attendees in Washington, DC. Data were collected from adult, primarily homosexual, club attendees during the summer of 2003. Data collection was scheduled between 11 p.m. and 3 a.m. Participation rates were high. Of the 211 club attendees approached, 88% (n = 186) completed the interview. Drug use prevalence rates were low. With the exception of alcohol and marijuana, 2-day self-reports were less than 1% for each drug. These findings, amalgamated with results from other EOCD-related studies involving several distinct populations, offer considerable insight into the state of ecstasy in American society. Based on a meta-analysis of this literature, we offer a community-level prevention intervention for the population at highest risk for EOCD use-rave attendees.
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Affiliation(s)
- George S Yacoubian
- Pacific Institute for Research Evaluation (PIRE), Calverton, MD 20705-3102, USA.
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30
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Büttner A, Weis S. Central Nervous System Alterations in Drug Abuse. FORENSIC PATHOLOGY REVIEWS 2004. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59259-786-4_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Schifano F, Oyefeso A, Corkery J, Cobain K, Jambert-Gray R, Martinotti G, Ghodse AH. Death rates from ecstasy (MDMA, MDA) and polydrug use in England and Wales 1996-2002. Hum Psychopharmacol 2003; 18:519-24. [PMID: 14533133 DOI: 10.1002/hup.528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The present study reports on all deaths related to taking ecstasy (alone, or in a polydrug combination) occurring in England and Wales in the time frame August 1996-April 2002. Data presented here are based on all information recorded in the National Programme on Substance Abuse Deaths (np-SAD) database. The np-SAD regularly receives all information on drug related deaths in addicts and non addicts from coroners. A total of 202 ecstasy-related fatalities occurred in the chosen time-frame, showing a steady increase in the number of deaths each year. The ratio male:female was 4:1 and 3 of 4 victims were younger than 29. In 17% of cases ecstasy was the sole drug implicated in death and in the remaining cases a number of other drugs (mostly alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines and opiates) have been found. According to toxicology results, MDMA accounted for 86% of cases and MDA for 13% of cases; single deaths were associated with MDEA and PMA. This is the largest sample of ecstasy related deaths so far; possible explanations are given for the observed steady increase in ecstasy-related deaths and a tentative 'rationale' for this polypharmacy combination is then proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Schifano
- National Programme on Substance Abuse Deaths, Department Addictive Behaviour and Psychological Medicine, St George's Hospital Medical School, London, UK.
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