Surgical treatment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Outcomes of one-stage feminizing genitoplasty in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and severe virilization

PURPOSE

To present our surgical experience and outcomes in congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) patients with severe virilization using a combined technique of total urogenital mobilization (TUM) and a modified pull-through vaginoplasty to perform a safe and effective one-stage feminizing genital reconstruction for these children.

METHODS

Fourteen CAH patients with severe virilization, defined by a Prader IV and V rating of the external genitalia, underwent TUM followed by a limited vaginal pull-through procedure from June 2016 to December 2020. Postoperative anatomical and cosmetic outcomes, and urinary continence, were evaluated.

RESULTS

Out of the 14 cases in this study, 8 were classified as prader IV and 6 as Prader V. The median age at surgery was 11 months (range 6-36 months), and the mean urethral length was 1.4 cm (range 1.2-1.8 cm). The median follow-up period was 4 years. Our cosmetic outcomes were good in 11 (78.5%), satisfactory in 2, and poor in one case. All patients achieved age-appropriate toilet training without urinary incontinence.

CONCLUSION

Adopting our surgical approach of TUM with modified pull-through vaginoplasty has simplified feminizing surgical reconstruction in CAH cases with severe genital atypia and a very high vaginal confluence with short urethral length, yielding adequate introitus with good anatomical and cosmetic appearance and adequate urinary continence outcomes.

Sensation-preserving clitoral reduction surgery: A preliminary report of our experience

BACKGROUND

The knowledge that preservation of clitoral sensation is essential for future sexual satisfaction gave rise to sensation-preserving clitoral reduction surgery. We present our results of sensation-preserving clitoral reduction procedure in the small group of patients.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To show our technique and result of sensation-preserving clitoral reduction surgery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a retrospective study of cases with clitoromegaly, over a 5-year period, in which sensation-preserving clitoral reduction procedure was done by us at our centre. Demographics, indication for clitoral reduction, operative procedure, operative time, any intraoperative difficulty or problem, anaesthesia type, post-operative stay and outcome were analysed. Pre-operative and post-operative evaluation for clitoral viability done in all the cases, and evaluation for clitoral sensory testing and vibratory sensory testing done in selected cases.

RESULTS

A total of eight cases were operated in the last 5 years. Five were due to congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Immediate post-operative period was uneventful in all. Cosmetic appearance and viability were satisfactory in all the cases. In five cases, clitoral sensory testing and vibratory sensory testing were done, an average degree of sensation of 3.2 at the labia minora and 4.7 at the clitoris and an average values clitoral vibratory sensory testing for the introitus, clitoris, labia and thigh were 3.56, 1.61, 5.08 and 5.83, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Clitoral enlargement in girls is a rare problem. Sensation-preserving ventral clitoral reduction surgery leads to preservation of neurovascular bundles leads to acceptable cosmesis and preserved sensation.

Assessment of health-related quality of life in Egyptian children and adolescents with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Background Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a chronic disorder causing adrenal insufficiency and hyperandrogenism affecting the quality of life (QOL). The objective of the study was to assess the health-related QOL (HRQOL) in Egyptian children and adolescents with CAH and to identify factors affecting it. Methods This cross-sectional study included 200 CAH patients (with 21-hydroxylase deficiency [21-OHD]) who were assessed according to their age, sex, clinical phenotype, timing of genitoplasty, hospital admissions within the last year, compliance to treatment, regularity of follow-up, presence of complications and hormonal control. HRQOL was assessed using the World Health Organization (WHO)QOL-BREF questionnaire with four domains analyzed independently including physical, psychological, social and environmental domains, with higher scores indicating better QOL. Results The study included 140 females and 60 males with a mean age of 6.6 ± 4.5 years, and 88% were salt-wasting (SW). Older patients had significantly lower QOL scores (r = - 0.151, p = 0.033). The physical domain correlated significantly with the degree of virilization (r = - 0.491, p = 0.001) and frequency of hospitalization (r = - 0.495, p < 0.001). The psychological domain was affected by age (r = - 0.157, p = 0.026) and timing of genitoplasty (r = - 0.326, p = 0.001), while the social domain was affected by age (r = -0.277, p < 0.005) and pubertal stage (r = - 0.195, p = 0.006). Females had lower scores at the psychological domain (p < 0.001), whereas males had lower scores at the physical domain (p = 0.003). Salt-losing patients had lower scores at the physical domain (p = 0.001). Patients with good hormonal control had higher scores at the physical domain (p = 0.03). Genitoplasty affected both psychological and social domains (p = 0.003 and 0.01, respectively). Patients with hypertension and hirsutism had lower QOL scores (p < 0.05). Conclusions HRQOL was relatively more affected in CAH patients with older age, poor hormonal control, high frequency of hospital admissions and those who developed complications.

Sexual function and voiding status following one stage feminizing genitoplasty

BACKGROUND

The data on long-term outcome of feminizing genitoplasty (FG) with regard to the sexual function and voiding status is limited and nearly always retrospective, reviewing only small numbers of patients. Furthermore, most articles only looked at the success as an adequately open vagina with a feminized appearance. Success should include normal erotic sensation, lubrication, sexual satisfaction, orgasm, and intercourse without discomfort. These latter factors are just beginning to be studied OBJECTIVE: To investigate sexual function and voiding status in women who underwent vaginal reconstruction in childhood.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed medical files of patients who underwent FG at our center from 1988 to 2000. In addition, patients were asked to complete the following standardized questionnaires: Female Genital Self-Image Scale (FGSIS), dysfunctional voiding and incontinence symptoms score (DVISS), and Female Sexual Function Questionnaire (FSFI).

RESULTS

patients underwent one-stage FG; of those, 36 with median age of 21 years (range 18-30 years) who completed the puberty period were included into this study. Of the participants, 15 (41.6%) lived in a committed partnership, and 12 (80%) had sexual intercourse on a regular basis. Total FSFI was 22.2 + 3.1 (mean + SE). Domain scores were 3.9, 4.3, 4.5, 4.3, 4.9, and 4.7 for desire, arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, and pain, respectively (Summary Figure). None of the patients reported on daytime incontinence or enuresis. Female genital self-image was found to be positive in all patients and related positively to women's sexual function.

DISCUSSION

The general rate of the sexual activity of our studied population was similar to that published in the literature 80% in our study vs 60-87% published in the literature. The overall FSFI was 22, showing some evidence of the female sexual dysfunction. However, only one patient regarding pain during vaginal penetration demonstrated mild dyspareunia. At the same time, we have not found any desire, arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction problems. Furthermore none of our patients complained on lower urinary tract symptoms during questioning, while three girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia presented during follow-up with dribbling incontinence, which resolved with introitoplasty and creation of the wide vaginal opening.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data demonstrate that one -tage FG in childhood is a long-term effective surgical procedure that does not cause voiding dysfunction. If a secondary intervention is required prior to the sexual life, simple introitoplasty usually solves the problem. The FSFI score showed overall acceptable sexual function, whereas mild dyspareunia was a major complain.

Treatment of the Enlarged Clitoris

Management of the enlarged clitoris, because of its import for sexual function, has been and remains one of the most controversial topics in pediatric urology. Early controversy surrounding clitoroplasty resulted from many factors including an incomplete understanding of clitoral anatomy and incorrect assumptions of the role of the clitoris in sexual function. With a better understanding of anatomy and function, procedures have evolved to preserve clitoral tissue, especially with respect to the neurovascular bundles. These changes have been made in an effort to preserve clitoral sensation and preserve orgasmic potential. It is the goal of this manuscript to describe the different procedures that have been developed for the surgical management of clitoromegally, with emphasis on the risks and benefits of each. Equally important to any discussion of such a sensitive topic is an understanding of long-term patient outcomes. As we will see, despite its importance, there has been a dearth of data in this regard. Future work in the arena of patient satisfaction will undoubtedly play a major role in directing our surgical approach.

Surgical Treatment after Failed Primary Correction of Urogenital Sinus in Female Patients with Virilizing Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Are Good Results Possible?

PURPOSE

Genital reconstruction in female patients with virilizing congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is very challenging. Our aim was to evaluate the techniques employed to treat complications after failure of primary urogenital sinus (UGS) surgery, as well as the result of these reoperations.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Twenty girls with virilizing CAH who were previously submitted to genitoplasty in our service and elsewhere had recurrent UGS stenosis and vaginal introitus stenosis that required surgical treatment. The main symptoms were recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) in nine, dyspareunia in six, and hematocolpos in three (two associated with sepsis). The anatomical findings were the persistence of UGS with stenosis in 17 patients and vaginal introitus stenosis in 3. The mean age at procedure was 15.2 years, averaging 13.1 years after the first surgery. The surgical techniques employed were isolated perineal flap in 17 patients and perineal flap with partial mobilization of UGS in 3. The mean follow-up after the procedure was 4.8 years (varying from 1 to 17 years).

RESULTS

Vaginal dilations were performed after surgery in 15 patients. Good functional and anatomical results were obtained in 15 patients, with vaginal introitus amenable to dilators of 3.0 cm in diameter. Five patients with high vaginal insertion had recurrent vaginal stenosis and required a surgical revision. No patients presented menstrual obstruction or UTI after surgery. Eight of the 15 adult patients are sexually active.

CONCLUSION

The reoperation to treat failed primary UGS treatment using Y-V flap and partial mobilization techniques associated with vaginal dilations, promoted good anatomical, and functional results with low morbidity in 75% of the patients.

Surgical reconstruction of the genitalia in a 3-year-old infant with a 46XX karyotype: case report

A 3-year-old patient was hospitalized with ambiguous genitalia (clitoromegaly, labioscrotal fusion, absence of vaginal introitus), classified as stage III/IV according to Prader's virilization scale. Our patient, with a 46XX karyotype, was previously diagnosed with congenital adrenal hyperplasia caused by a deficiency of the adrenal enzyme 21-hydroxylase; corticosteroids and salt replacement therapy have been used. At the present admission, the surgical treatment consisted on clitoroplasty (with the removal of erectile tissue), reconstruction of the labia minor, creation of a neovulva and vaginoplasty. It was a single-step operation to restore the anatomical female structures. She had an uneventful postoperative period and the wound healed well with good cosmetic results. We present the details about the surgical procedure and a short review of data from literature.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE V

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Disorders of sex development

The birth of a new baby is one of the most dramatic events in a family, and the first question is usually "is it a boy or a girl?" The newborn infant with ambiguous external genitalia often comes as a surprise for the doctors as well as the parents and is sometimes described as an endocrine emergency situation presenting a problem of sex assignment. The nomenclature such as 'intersex', 'hermaphrodite', and 'pseudohermaphrodite' is out of date as well as confusing, and many urologists are concerned that these confusing terms could be perceived to be pejorative by some affected families. In response to concerns regarding outdated and controversial terms, the Chicago Consensus held in 2005 recommended new terminology based on the umbrella term disorders of sex differentiation (DSDs). The term DSD has a comprehensive definition including any problem noted at birth in which the genitalia are atypical in relation to the chromosomes or gonads. The karyotype is used as a prefix defining the classification of DSD. DSDs are rare and complex. The optimal management of patients with DSD must be individualized and multidisciplinary, considering all aspects, including psychological care and full disclosure of alternatives relating to surgery type and timing. Although further studies are necessary to confirm guidelines and recommendations fitting for the individual patients with DSD, this article is an attempt to provide a balanced perspective for new taxonomy, clinical evaluation, and medical, surgical, and psychological management of DSD.

Steroid 21 hydroxylase deficiency congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Steroid 21 hydroxylase deficiency is the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). The severity of this disorder depends on the extent of impaired enzymatic activity, which is caused by various mutations of the 21 hydroxylase gene. This article reviews adrenal steroidogenesis and the pathophysiology of 21 hydroxylase deficiency. The three forms of CAH are then discussed in terms of clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment, and genetic basis. Prenatal diagnosis and treatment are also reviewed. The goal of therapy is to correct the deficiency in cortisol secretion and suppress androgen overproduction. Glucocorticoid replacement has been the mainstay of treatment for CAH, but new treatment strategies continue to be developed and studied.

Consensus in Guidelines for Evaluation of DSD by the Texas Children's Hospital Multidisciplinary Gender Medicine Team

The Gender Medicine Team (GMT), comprised of members with expertise in endocrinology, ethics, genetics, gynecology, pediatric surgery, psychology, and urology, at Texas Children's Hospital and Baylor College of Medicine formed a task force to formulate a consensus statement on practice guidelines for managing disorders of sexual differentiation (DSD) and for making sex assignments. The GMT task force reviewed published evidence and incorporated findings from clinical experience. Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) was used to assess the quality of evidence presented in the literature for establishing evidence-based guidelines. The task force presents a consensus statement regarding specific diagnostic and therapeutic issues in the management of individuals who present with DSD. The consensus statement includes recommendations for (1) laboratory workup, (2) acute management, (3) sex assignment in an ethical framework that includes education and involvement of the parents, and (4) surgical management.

Steroid 21 hydroxylase deficiency congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Steroid 21 hydroxylase deficiency is the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). The severity of this disorder depends on the extent of impaired enzymatic activity, which is caused by various mutations of the 21 hydroxylase gene. This article reviews adrenal steroidogenesis and the pathophysiology of 21 hydroxylase deficiency. The three forms of CAH are then discussed in terms of clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment, and genetic basis. Prenatal diagnosis and treatment are also reviewed. The goal of therapy is to correct the deficiency in cortisol secretion and suppress androgen overproduction. Glucocorticoid replacement has been the mainstay of treatment for CAH, but new treatment strategies continue to be developed and studied.

Sexual function and genital sensitivity following feminizing genitoplasty for congenital adrenal hyperplasia

PURPOSE

Female sex assignment followed by cosmetic genitoplasty to feminize the genitalia in infancy remains standard practice in the clinical management of ambiguous genitalia. The effects of surgery on genital sensitivity have never been objectively evaluated. To our knowledge the current study is the first to evaluate genital sensitivity and sexual function in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 28 women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and 10 normal controls were recruited. Details of prior genital surgery were obtained from medical records. Sensitivity thresholds for the clitoris and upper vagina were measured using a GenitoSensory Analyzer (Medoc, Ramat, Israel). Sexual function was assessed using a standardized measure.

RESULTS

Of 28 women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia 24 had undergone feminizing genital surgery. In women who underwent surgery there was significant impairment to sensitivity in the clitoris compared to controls. No difference was observed for the sensitivity threshold in the upper vagina, where surgery had not been done in any of the women. Data on the 4 women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia who had not undergone surgery were similar to those in controls. Sexual function difficulties were more severe in women who underwent surgery, especially vaginal penetration difficulties and intercourse frequency. Linear relationships were observed for impairment to sensitivity and severity of sexual difficulties.

CONCLUSIONS

Genital sensitivity is impaired in areas where feminizing genital surgery had been done and impairment to sensitivity are linearly related to difficulties in sexual function. The new information may help inform clinicians and parents making difficult decisions about genital surgery for infants with ambiguous genitalia.

Disorders of sex development

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The current management of patients with intersex, now designated as disorders of sex development, is presented in the context of updated etiological and outcome data, refined surgical procedures and the need for a multidisciplinary approach.

RECENT FINDINGS

The recently published consensus statement, the primary publication cited herein, includes known genetic causes of disorders of sex development, and provides a perspective for clinical evaluation, and medical, surgical and psychological management. The importance of fetal hormone exposure, genital development, gonadal differentiation and potential of fertility, full disclosure and parental involvement in decisions is crucial. All need a sex assignment; recommendations should be based upon what is judged to be the most likely adult gender identity, diagnosis, genital appearance and surgical options, fertility, cultural pressures, family dynamics and social circumstance, with deference given to psychosocial factors when the outcome is unpredictable. Surgery is discouraged for mild genital variations, but surgery during infancy is recommended for those with major genital ambiguity.

SUMMARY

Even with greater understanding of the genetic causes of disorders of sex development, the complex management of these patients must be individualized, considering all aspects, informing as age-appropriate the parents and patient. Further etiology and outcome studies are needed.

[Feminizing genitoplasty and congenital adrenal hyperplasia: analysis of anatomical results]

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the anatomical and cosmetic results of feminizing genitoplasty in girls with ambiguous genitalia due to Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH).

CASUISTIC AND METHOD

Twenty-seven females with genital ambiguity (Prader III-V) due to CAH underwent an one-stage feminizing genitoplasty and were followed for a mean time of 4 years. In twelve girls, two cutaneous labioscrotal island-flaps were associated with the conventional genitoplasty, to decrease the excess of labia majora and to enlarge the vaginal introitus. Urinary tract infections were observed in sixteen girls in the preoperative and in only seven in the postoperative period. The cosmetic results were obtained by the systematic anatomical evaluation of the different structures that compose the genitalia.

RESULTS

The results of clitoroplasty were considered good in 63% of the cases; however, 4 girls developed clitoral atrophy. An excess of labia majora was present in 25% and persistence of the urogenital sinus occurred in 11% (three children without labioscrotal island flap). The labioscrotal island flap was considered technically feasible and reproducible. Five girls had to be re-operated. The cosmetic results were considered excellent or good in 63% of the cases, satisfactory in 18.5% and unsatisfactory or bad in 18.5%.

CONCLUSIONS

The anatomical and cosmetic results were good in majority of the cases; however, some technical aspects should be adjusted, to avoid irreversible sequels and re-operations.

Diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is the name applied to a class of autosomal recessive disorders resulting from deficiency of one of five enzymes necessary for cortisol synthesis by the adrenal cortex. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is most often attributable to steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency, accounting for more than 90% of cases. This discussion will be limited to the most common form of the disease, highlighting methods of diagnostic screening and challenges in disease management.

Mobilização total do seio urogenital para tratamento da genitália ambígua em crianças com hiperplasia adrenal congênita

A abordagem cirúrgica das pacientes com hiperplasia adrenal congênita (HAC) é um desafio e envolve controvérsias. O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar os resultados da correção da genitália em 10 crianças 46 XX com HAC, pela técnica de mobilização total do seio urogenital (MUT), em tempo único. A idade, por ocasião do tratamento cirúrgico, variou de 11 a 78 meses (média= 32 meses) e o seguimento pós-operatório de 15 a 36 meses (média= 26 meses). O aspecto estético foi considerado bom em 7, com uretra e vagina bem exteriorizados no vestíbulo, e satisfatório em 3. Após o acompanhamento médio de 26 meses, a técnica de MUT, por via perineal, sem divisão do reto, se mostrou eficaz para o tratamento da genitália ambígua em crianças com HAC.

Minimal surgical intervention in the management of intersex conditions

The surgical correction of ambiguous genitalia has been a significant part of treatment for intersex conditions for the last 50 years, based on the belief that the child will be psychologically damaged by the uncorrected appearance. Despite widespread adoption of this policy, there is no evidence in the literature to support this approach. More commonly, the primary indication appears to be for the relief of parental anxiety. However, patients are increasingly expressing dissatisfaction with previous management, arguing that surgery should only be performed for strictly defined medical indications. Surgery may comprise treatment for the absent or shortened vagina, or for the correction of virilised external genitalia. The timing of such surgery is controversial, with many surgeons believing that a 'one-stage' procedure in infancy is appropriate. However, given that the vast majority of patients require further surgery at adolescence, others argue that deferral of vaginal surgery until after puberty is more appropriate. The role of clitoral surgery is contentious with many questioning the necessity of any operation in childhood for cosmesis which may impair subsequent sexual function. Despite claims that newer surgical techniques lead to a better result than previously, there remains little information in the literature regarding long-term functional outcomes following clitoral reduction procedures. Alternatives to vaginal and clitoral surgery are considered in this article. Vaginal operations should almost always take place at adolescence, given the poor outcomes of early surgery. When clitoral operations are performed, this should be for severely virilised individuals, with surgery best avoided for those with only mild or moderate virilisation.

Self-reported sexual arousability in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

As part of a larger study of psychosexual development and sexual functioning in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), we assessed self-reported sexual arousability with the Sexual Arousability Inventory-Short Form (SAI-SF; Hoon & Chambless, 1998). Compared to their unaffected sisters/female cousins (n = 15), women with CAH (n = 30) reported significantly lower sexual arousability on the SAI, with an effect size, using Cohen's d, of 1.16. For both the CAH women alone and combined with the controls, higher self-reported sexual arousability was significantly associated with (a) relationship status (married or cohabitating with a man versus being single or not in a relationship); (b) higher levels of sexual attraction to men in fantasy in the past 12 months on the Erotic Response and Orientation Scale (Storms, 1980); (c) higher Kinsey interview ratings of a heterosexual orientation in behavior in the past 12 months; and (d) more sexual experiences with men, according to a modified version of the Zuckerman (1973) Heterosexual Experience Scale (HES), in the past 12 months and lifetime (all ps < .001-.05). CAH women who were simple virilizers (versus salt-wasters) and those assigned female at birth (versus delayed or male) tended to report higher levels of sexual arousability (p < .10). Self-reported degree of satisfaction with genital surgery and genital function was also associated with higher levels of arousability. For CAH women and both groups combined, multiple regression analysis showed that the sole predictor of self-reported sexual arousability was HES lifetime sexual experiences with men. We discuss the results in the context of assessing sexual function and dysfunction in women with CAH.

Labioscrotal island flap in feminizing genitoplasty

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Stenosis of the vaginal introitus is the most frequent complication after genital reconstruction for ambiguous genitalia associated with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). With the aim of enlarging the vaginal introitus, the authors present a technical modification of the introitoplasty that uses a bilateral cutaneous island flap based on the perineal superficial branches of the internal pudendal artery.

METHODS

Eleven girls with CAH and Prader III to V genital ambiguity were included. Feminizing genitoplasty was performed in 1 stage. Bilateral cutaneous labioescrotal island flaps, based on the posterior labial artery, were included in the introitoplasty. The cosmetic results of the genitoplasty were evaluated by photographic analysis of the external genitalia.

RESULTS

Integrity of the vaginal introitus as well as excellent integration of the flap and absence of additional scars in the donor area were assessed in all girls.

CONCLUSIONS

This modified island flap is technically feasible and reproducible producing no additional sequels in the donor area. It uses perineal skin that is usually excised in other techniques avoiding the use of harvesting skin from adjacent areas. Thus, it can be a useful additional procedure in the introitoplasty in association with the currently used techniques.

Psychosexual development in individuals who have female pseudohermaphroditism

This article describes psychosexual outcomes and issues in syndromes of female pseudohermaphroditism, broadly defined. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, the most common cause of intersex genitalia at birth, is covered as are Turner Syndrome and syndromes in which XY infants who are born with undervirilized genitalia are assigned and reared as girls (androgen insensitivity syndrome; cloacal exstrophy). The same hormonal abnormalities that cause most physical intersex conditions also influence brain development and behavior; individuals who have intersex conditions can show behavior that is in between that of the typical boy/man and the typical girl/woman. Changes in sex-typical play behavior in childhood are larger than in sexual orientation or core gender identity in adulthood. Most female pseudohermaphrodites, whether XX or XY, who are assigned and reared as girls evolve a feminine core gender identity and primarily are heterosexual. Implications for current debate about the treatment of infants who have ambiguous genitalia are discussed, as is the need for additional research and for consideration of psychologic counseling as part of the treatment program.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency--the adult woman

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency is a disease with a varying phenotype depending on the mutation(s) present and the severity of the disease. All children with CAH need to be continuously cared for from birth or early infancy by specialists in paediatric endocrinology and surgery. Complications due to over- or under-treatment with corticosteroids are often seen during adolescence, and these problems often continue into adulthood. For the young woman with CAH, questions about menstruation, sexuality, fertility and the possible necessity of complementary surgery are always important issues that need to be discussed. To meet the needs of the young woman with CAH, it is important that the transition from paediatric to adult care be a process of parallel consultations over several years, always involving an experienced gynaecologic endocrinologist.

Anatomical studies of the female genitalia: surgical reconstructive implications

Surgery for patients with genital ambiguity must be based on an accurate diagnosis, thorough understanding of the genital anatomy and realistic expectations for the patient, family and treating multi-specialty team. The goal is to create a functional and cosmetic outcome consonant with the gender assignment with the least amount of morbidity to the patient and family. An understanding of the normal genital neuroanatomy is essential for a successful surgical approach and outcome. Based on fetal human specimens, we have refined the three-dimensional relationship of the dorsal nerve of the clitoris, the female cavernosal nerve and the vaginal plexus. The surgical approach to patients with severe clitoral virilization should preserve erectile function and the neural innervation of the clitoris. When indicated, surgery should be performed in infancy to minimize psychological trauma and surgical complications from scarring. Herein, we review the neuroanatomy of the female genitalia and the implications for the rare patient who needs surgical reconstruction.

The long term outcome of feminizing genital surgery for congenital adrenal hyperplasia: anatomical, functional and cosmetic outcomes, psychosexual development, and satisfaction in adult female patients

BACKGROUND

There are only a few reports analyzing the long term outcome of feminizing surgery in females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Such analysis is crucial to evaluate the treatment and to make necessary adjustments.

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the adult outcome after feminizing surgery in adult females with salt wasting CAH.

DESIGN

Retrospective observational followup investigation.

SETTING

Outpatient clinic of a University Medical Center, in 2002.

PARTICIPANTS

Eight patients (born 1973-1983) who underwent feminizing surgery in infancy by the same procedure and the same pediatric surgeon in our center, and 19 healthy female controls (for visual analog scales).

METHODS

(a) Study of patients' records (n=8); (b) Systematic evaluation of the current situation (n=6): uroflowmetry, a written questionnaire to screen for psychopathology (Youth Adult Self Report, YASR), structured gynecologic examination and a structured psychosexual interview, including scoring on visual analog scales.

RESULTS

(a) The first surgery (age 0.1-3.7 yr) consisted of clitoris reduction and vaginoplasty (single-stage) in 7 patients and clitoris reduction only in one patient. The latter patient had vaginoplasty in puberty. In puberty, 6 of the 7 patients with an initial single-stage procedure required re-vaginoplasty. All 6 patients who participated in this systematic evaluation had undergone (re-) vaginoplasty in puberty; (b) 2 of the 6 patients experienced some urinary incontinence, and in one of them, the uroflowmetry result was abnormal. The YASR showed no psychopathology, except for 1 patient with a slightly elevated externalizing score. Gynecologic examination (n=5) revealed vaginal strictures in 3 patients (1 severe, 2 mild). The 2 patients without vaginal strictures had coitus regularly. In the interview, 2 patients called themselves bisexual, the other 4 heterosexual. None of the patients had homosexual contacts. Sexual developmental milestones (romantic interest, falling in love, kissing and petting, coitus) had been reached by all, except for 1 patient who did not have coitus yet. In the patient group, satisfaction with height, body hair, and external genitalia and sexual fantasies and interest, measured with visual analog scales, was not different compared to the control group, except for satisfaction with total body appearance, which was significantly lower in the patients.

CONCLUSION

Despite the poor outcome of the initial single-stage surgery in infancy and the inevitable re-operation in puberty, the adult outcome in our study population seems more positive than the findings in the few previous reports, especially with respect to sexual development and activity.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: surgical considerations required to repair a 46,XX patient raised as a boy

21-hydroxylase deficiency (P450 CYP21) accounts for 90% of cases of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which is associated with abnormally low cortisol and high production of androgen precursors and is the most common cause of ambiguous genitalia. Increased androgen causes in utero virilization of the fetus, consisting of clitoral enlargement, an urogenital sinus, and labioscrotal enlargement and fusion. This is the first case in an experience covering more than 30 years, of a 46,XX patient raised as a boy. The authors report a case of a Pakistani patient born of a consanguineous union, who came to medical attention at age 3 because of severe genital ambiguity; genetic analyses showed that the child was a compound heterozygote for CAH. The surgical management of this patient consisted of (1) staged hypospadias repairs preceded by testosterone therapy, (2) creation of a bladder graft neourethra, (3) removal of müllerian structures, (4) correction of bifid prepenile scrotum, and (5) insertion of testicular prostheses. The commitment to raise a 46,XX child as a boy is a very rare event. With a series of staged complex surgical procedures and careful steroid replacement, normal secondary sexual characteristics can be achieved in these children.

Human sex differentiation and its abnormalities

The purpose of this chapter is to review the presentation and management of patients affected by conditions of abnormal sex differentiation. First, the processes of normal sex differentiation are covered, followed by an overview of the various syndromes of abnormal sex differentiation, or intersex conditions, that can occur. These disorders are presented according to the following categories: patients who possess a 46,XX chromosome complement, those who possess a 46,XY chromosome complement, and individuals who present with an atypical sex chromosome complement (i.e. 45,XO or 45,X0/46,XY mosaicism). A description of the medical, surgical and psychological treatment options for people affected by various intersex conditions and reared as females are included. Practice points, based on research studies when available, are dispersed throughout the chapter. Additionally, information pertaining to relevant Internet websites and patient support groups are provided, so that medical staff can educate their patients about the availability of these resources.

Molecular diagnosis of CYP21 mutations in congenital adrenal hyperplasia: implications for genetic counseling

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is an inherited disorder of steroid biosynthesis most often attributable to mutations in CYP21 (also termed CYP21A2) encoding the active steroid 21-hydroxylase enzyme. This review focuses on clinical and genetic aspects of CAH, and updates the reader on current methodology and applications for molecular genetic diagnosis. Genotyping patients with CAH has revealed > 50 mutations within CYP21, yet only 10 mutations account for approximately 95% of affected alleles. Many CYP21 mutations are gene conversions arising via transfer of gene sequences between the non-functional CYP21 pseudogene and CYP21. Phenotype is generally well-correlated with genotype. Historically, CAH has been divided into 3 types of disease: classic salt-wasting, classic simple virilizing (non-salt-wasting), and nonclassic. Recent findings support the notion that rather than discrete phenotypic categories, CAH is better represented as a continuum of phenotypes, from severe to mild. Molecular genetic diagnosis is most effectively employed now in prenatal diagnosis of classic CAH. As newborn screening for CAH becomes more widespread, genotyping may be implemented to resolve diagnostic difficulties encountered with hormonal testing. As automated methods of DNA diagnosis such as microarrays or gene chips are refined, it is likely that genetic screening will become less expensive and more readily available. The clinician should be aware of the potential for both false negatives and false positives with PCR-based gene screening. In short, whereas molecular genetic diagnosis is a valuable tool, it cannot replace clinical acumen and hormonal assays.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: transition from chil dhood to adulthood

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a group of disorders caused by inborn errors of steroid metabolism. The most common form owing to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (CAH-21OHD) is present in about 1:10,000- 1:15,000 live births worldwide. In its classic salt-wasting form (-66-75% of cases) patients may suffer potentially lethal adrenal insufficiency. Non-salt-wasting forms of CAH-21 OHD are recognized by genital ambiguity in affected females, and by signs of androgen excess in later childhood in males. Non-classic CAH-21 OHD may be detected in up to 1-3% of certain populations, and is often mistaken for idiopathic precocious pubarche in children or polycystic ovary syndrome in young women. This chapter will address issues relating to transition of CAH care from the pediatric to the adult endocrinologist.