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Younes M, Aggett P, Aguilar F, Crebelli R, Dusemund B, Filipič M, Frutos MJ, Galtier P, Gott D, Gundert-Remy U, Kuhnle GG, Lambré C, Leblanc JC, Lillegaard IT, Moldeus P, Mortensen A, Oskarsson A, Stankovic I, Waalkens-Berendsen I, Wright M, Di Domenico A, Van Loveren H, Giarola A, Horvath Z, Lodi F, Riolo F, Woutersen RA. Re-evaluation of stannous chloride (E 512) as food additive. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05295. [PMID: 32625934 PMCID: PMC7009391 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS) provides a scientific opinion re‐evaluating the safety of stannous chloride and stannous chloride dihydrate (E 512) as food additives. The Panel considered that adequate exposure and toxicity data were available. Stannous chloride is only permitted as food additives in one food category and no reply on the actual use level of stannous chloride (E 512) as a food additive and on its concentration in food was provided by any interested party. According to the Mintel's Global New Products Database (GNPD), stannous chloride was not labelled on any products in the EU nor in Norway. The regulatory maximum level exposure assessment scenario is based on the maximum permitted levels (MPLs) for stannous chloride (E 512), which is 25 mg Sn/kg. The mean exposure to stannous chloride (E 512) from its use as a food additive was below 1.3 μg Sn/kg body weight (bw) per day for all age groups. The 95th percentile of exposure to stannous chloride (E 512) ranged from 0.0 μg Sn/kg bw per day in all groups to 11.2 μg Sn/kg bw per day in adults. Absorption of stannous chloride from the gastrointestinal tract is low there is no concern with respect to carcinogenicity and genotoxicity. Gastrointestinal irritation was reported in humans after ingestion of a bolus dose of 40 mg Sn. The Panel concluded that stannous chloride (E 512) is of no safety concern in this current authorised use and use levels.
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Rajan I, Narayanan N, Rabindran R, Jayasree PR, Manish Kumar PR. Zingerone protects against stannous chloride-induced and hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative DNA damage in vitro. Biol Trace Elem Res 2013; 155:455-9. [PMID: 24006104 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-013-9801-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we report the dose-dependent antioxidant activity and DNA protective effects of zingerone. At 500 μg/mL, the DPPH radical scavenging activity of zingerone and ascorbic acid as a standard was found to be 86.7 and 94.2 % respectively. At the same concentration, zingerone also showed significant reducing power (absorbance 0.471) compared to that of ascorbic acid (absorbance 0.394). The in vitro toxicity of stannous chloride (SnCl2) was evaluated using genomic and plasmid DNA. SnCl2-induced degradation of genomic DNA was found to occur at a concentration of 0.8 mM onwards with complete degradation at 1.02 mM and above. In the case of plasmid DNA, conversion of supercoiled DNA into the open circular form indicative of DNA nicking activity was observed at a concentration of 0.2 mM onwards; complete conversion was observed at a concentration of 1.02 mM and above. Zingerone was found to confer protection against SnCl2-induced oxidative damage to genomic and plasmid DNA at concentrations of 500 and 750 μg/mL onwards, respectively. This protective effect was further confirmed in the presence of UV/H2O2-a known reactive oxygen species (ROS) generating system-wherein protection by zingerone against ROS-mediated DNA damage was observed at a concentration of 250 μg/mL onwards in a dose-dependent manner. This study clearly indicated the in vitro DNA protective property of zingerone against SnCl2-induced, ROS-mediated DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iyappan Rajan
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Calicut, Malappuram, Kerala, 673635, India
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Mattos JCPD, Matos VCD, Rodrigues MP, Oliveira MBND, Dantas FJS, Santos-Filho SD, Bernardo-Filho M, Caldeira-de-Araujo A. Evaluation of deoxyribonucleic acid toxicity induced by the radiopharmaceutical 99mTechnetium-Methylenediphosphonic acid and by stannous chloride in Wistar rats. Molecules 2012; 17:12974-83. [PMID: 23117436 PMCID: PMC6268462 DOI: 10.3390/molecules171112974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Revised: 10/10/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Radiopharmaceuticals are employed in patient diagnostics and disease treatments. Concerning the diagnosis aspect, technetium-99m (99mTc) is utilized to label radiopharmaceuticals for single photon computed emission tomography (SPECT) due to its physical and chemical characteristics. 99mTc fixation on pharmaceuticals depends on a reducing agent, stannous chloride (SnCl2) being the most widely-utilized. The genotoxic, clastogenic and anegenic properties of the 99mTc-MDP(methylene diphosphonate used for bone SPECT) and SnCl2 were evaluated in Wistar rat blood cells using the Comet assay and micronucleus test. The experimental approach was to endovenously administer NaCl 0.9% (negative control), cyclophosphamide 50 mg/kg b.w. (positive control), SnCl2 500 μg/mL or 99mTc-MDP to animals and blood samples taken immediately before the injection, 3, and 24 h after (in the Comet assay) and 36 h after, for micronucleus test. The data showed that both SnCl2 and 99mTc-MDP-induced deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) strand breaks in rat total blood cells, suggesting genotoxic potential. The 99mTc-MDP was not able to induce a significant DNA strand breaks increase in in vivo assays. Taken together, the data presented here points to the formation of a complex between SnCl2 in the radiopharmaceutical 99mTc-MDP, responsible for the decrease in cell damage, compared to both isolated chemical agents. These findings are important for the practice of nuclear medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Carlos Pelielo De Mattos
- Departamento de Biofísica e Biometria, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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Endonuclease IV is the main base excision repair enzyme involved in DNA damage induced by UVA radiation and stannous chloride. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:376218. [PMID: 20300433 PMCID: PMC2840410 DOI: 10.1155/2010/376218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2009] [Revised: 12/16/2009] [Accepted: 12/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Stannous chloride (SnCl2) and UVA induce DNA lesions through ROS. The aim of this work was to study the toxicity induced by UVA preillumination, followed by SnCl2 treatment. E. coli BER mutants were used to identify genes which could play a role in DNA lesion repair generated by these agents. The survival assays showed (i) The nfo mutant was the most sensitive to SnCl2; (ii) lethal synergistic effect was observed after UVA pre-illumination, plus SnCl2 incubation, the nfo mutant being the most sensitive; (iii) wild type and nfo mutants, transformed with pBW21 plasmid (nfo+) had their survival increased following treatments. The alkaline agarose gel electrophoresis assays pointed that (i) UVA induced DNA breaks and fpg mutant was the most sensitive; (ii) SnCl2-induced DNA strand breaks were higher than those from UVA and nfo mutant had the slowest repair kinetics; (iii) UVA + SnCl2 promoted an increase in DNA breaks than SnCl2 and, again, nfo mutant displayed the slowest repair kinetics. In summary, Nfo protects E. coli cells against damage induced by SnCl2 and UVA + SnCl2.
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SnCl2-induced DNA damage and repair inhibition of MMS-caused lesions in V79 Chinese hamster fibroblasts. Arch Toxicol 2009; 83:769-75. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-009-0409-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2008] [Accepted: 02/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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El-Makawy AI, Girgis SM, Khalil WK. Developmental and genetic toxicity of stannous chloride in mouse dams and fetuses. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2008; 657:105-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2008.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2008] [Revised: 07/09/2008] [Accepted: 08/04/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Guedes AP, Cardoso VN, De Mattos JCP, Dantas FJS, Matos VC, Silva JCF, Bezerra RJAC, Caldeira-de-Araujo A. Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects induced by stannous chloride associated to nuclear medicine kits. Nucl Med Biol 2006; 33:915-21. [PMID: 17045172 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2006.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2006] [Revised: 07/11/2006] [Accepted: 07/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
At present, more than 75% of routine nuclear medicine diagnostic procedures use technetium-99m (99mTc). The binding between 99mTc and the drug to obtain the radiopharmaceutical needs a reducing agent, with stannous chloride (SnCl2) being one of the most used. There are controversies about the cytotoxic, genotoxic and mutagenic effects of SnCl2 in the literature. Thus, the approaches below were used to better understand the biological effects of this salt and its association in nuclear medicine kits [methylenediphosphonate (MDP) bone scintigraphy and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) kidney and brain scintigraphy]: (i) bacterial inactivation experiments; (ii) agarose gel electrophoresis of supercoiled and linear plasmid DNA and (iii) bacterial transformation assay. The Escherichia coli strains used here were AB1157 (wild type) and BW9091 (xthA mutant). Data obtained showed that both MDP and SnCl2 presented a high toxicity, but this was not observed when they were assayed together in the kit, thereby displaying a mutual protect effect. DTPA salt showed a moderate toxicity, and once more, the DTPA kit provided protection, compared to the SnCl2 effect alone. The results suggest a possible complex formation, either MDP-SnCl2 or DTPA-SnCl2, originating an atoxic compound. On the other hand, SnCl2-induced cell inactivation and the decrease in bacterial transformation generated by DTPA found in XthA mutant strain suggest that the lack of this enzyme could be responsible for the effects observed, being necessary to induce DNA damage repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson P Guedes
- Departamento de Biofísica e Biometria, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Rio de Janeiro 20551-030, Brazil.
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de Mattos JCP, Lage C, Dantas FJS, Moraes MO, Nunes APM, Bezerra RJAC, Faria MVC, Leitão AC, Caldeira-de-Araujo A. Interaction of stannous chloride leads to alteration in DNA, triphosphate nucleotides and isolated bases. Mol Cell Biochem 2006; 280:173-9. [PMID: 16311920 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-005-8908-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2005] [Accepted: 06/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Stannous chloride (SnCl2) is a reducing chemical agent used in several man-made products. SnCl2 can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS); therefore, studies have been carried out in order to better understand its damaging action in biological systems. In this work, calf thymus DNA, triphosphate nucleotides and isolated bases were incubated with SnCl2 and the results were analyzed through UV spectrophotometry. The presence of stannous ions altered the absorption spectra of all three isolates. The amount of stannous ions associated to DNA was measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Data showed that more than 40% of the initial SnCl2 concentration was present in the samples. Our results are in accordance with the damaging potential of this salt and present evidence that stannous ions can complex with DNA, inducing ROS in its vicinity, which may be responsible for the observed lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- José C P de Mattos
- Departamento de Biofísica e Biometria, IBRAG, UERJ, Avenue 28 de Setembro, 87, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 20551-030, Brazil
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Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic products, nutrition and allergies [NDA] related to the tolerable upper intake level of tin. EFSA J 2005. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2005.254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Pungartnik C, Viau C, Picada J, Caldeira-de-Araújo A, Henriques JAP, Brendel M. Genotoxicity of stannous chloride in yeast and bacteria. Mutat Res 2005; 583:146-57. [PMID: 15927871 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2005.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2005] [Revised: 03/07/2005] [Accepted: 03/17/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Stannous chloride was found genotoxic in microbial test systems of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, in one strain of Salmonella typhimurium and in the Mutoxitest of Escherichia coli. Five isogenic haploid yeast strains differing only in a particular repair-deficiency had the following ranking in Sn2+ -sensitivity: rad52delta>rad6delta>rad2delta>rad4delta>RAD, indicating a higher relevance of recombinogenic repair mechanisms than nucleotide excision in repair of Sn2+ -induced DNA damage. Sn2+ -treated cells formed aggregates that lead to gross overestimation of toxicity when not undone before diluting and plating. Reliable inactivation assays at exposure doses of 25-75 mM SnCl2 were achieved by de-clumping with either EDTA- or phosphate buffer. Sn2+ -induced reversion of the yeast his1-798, his1-208 and lys1-1 mutant alleles, in diploid and haploid cells, respectively, and putative frameshift mutagenesis (reversion of the hom3-10 allele) was observed. In diploid yeast, SnCl2 induced intra-genic mitotic recombination while inter-genic (reciprocal) recombination was very weak and not significant. Yeast cells of exponentially growing cultures were killed to about the same extend at 0.1% of SnCl2 than respective cells in stationary phase, suggesting a major involvement of physiological parameters of post-diauxic shift oxidative stress resistance in enhanced Sn2+ -tolerance. Superoxide dismutases, but not catalase, protected against SnCl2-induced reactive oxygen species as sod1delta had a three-fold higher sensitivity than the WT while the sod2delta mutant was only slightly more sensitive but conferred significant sensitivity increase in a sod1delta sod2delta double mutant. In the Salmonella reversion assay, SnCl2 did not induce mutations in strains TA97, TA98 or TA100, while a positive response was seen in strain TA102. SnCl2 induced a two-fold increase in mutation in the Mutoxitest strain IC203 (uvrA oxyR), but was less mutagenic in strain IC188 (uvrA). We propose that the mutagenicity of SnCl2 in yeast and bacteria occurs via error-prone repair of DNA damage that is produced by reactive oxygen species.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Pungartnik
- Dept. de Biofísica, Centro de Biotecnologia, UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91507-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Dantas FJS, de Mattos JCP, Moraes MO, Viana ME, Lage CAS, Cabral-Neto JB, Leitão AC, Bernardo-Filho M, Bezerraa RJAC, Carvalho JJ, Caldeira-de-Araújo A. Genotoxic effects of stannous chloride (SnCl2) in K562 cell line. Food Chem Toxicol 2002; 40:1493-8. [PMID: 12387314 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(02)00087-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The toxic effects of SnCl2 in K562 cells were analyzed in this study. This cell line is resistant to reactive oxygen species (ROS) making it suitable to evaluate the impact of SnCl2 in culture either through ROS or by direct toxicity using Trypan blue dye exclusion, comet and flow cytometry assays. An important loss of viability induced by SnCl2 in a dose-response manner was observed in cells treated in Tris-buffered saline (TBS). This necrotic cell death was further confirmed by flow cytometry. On the other hand, there was no loss of viability when cells were treated in rich medium (RPMI). DNA damage was visualized in SnCl2-treated K562 cells in both tested conditions. The data indicate that SnCl2 induces DNA damage and reduces K562 viability. Both actions seem to be correlated with ROS formation and direct linkage to DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J S Dantas
- Departamento de Biofísica e Biometria, IBRAG, UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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de Mattos JC, Dantas FJ, Bezerra RJ, Bernardo-Filho M, Cabral-Neto JB, Lage C, Leitão AC, Caldeira-de-Araújo A. Damage induced by stannous chloride in plasmid DNA. Toxicol Lett 2000; 116:159-63. [PMID: 10906433 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4274(00)00213-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Stannous chloride (SnCl(2)) is widely used in daily human life, for example, to conserve soft drinks, in food manufacturing and biocidal preparations. In nuclear medicine, stannous chloride is used as a reducing agent of Technetium-99m, a radionuclide used to label different cells and molecules. In spite of this, stannous chloride is able to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) which can damage DNA. In this work, plasmid DNA (pUC 9.1) was incubated with SnCl(2) under different conditions and the results analyzed through DNA migration in agarose gel electrophoresis. Our data reinforce the powerful damaging effect induced by stannous ion and suggest that this salt can play a direct role in inducing DNA lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C de Mattos
- Departamento de Biofísica e Biometria, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcantara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Dantas FJ, Moraes MO, de Mattos JC, Bezerra RJ, Carvalho EF, Filho MB, Caldeira de Araújo A. Stannous chloride mediates single strand breaks in plasmid DNA through reactive oxygen species formation. Toxicol Lett 1999; 110:129-36. [PMID: 10597023 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4274(99)00126-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Stannous ion (Sn) has been employed in nuclear medicine and in food industry. We described that Stannous Chloride (SnCl2) inactivation effect in Escherichia coli is mediated by a Fenton-like reaction. The effect of SnCl2 was studied through: (i) the alteration of plasmid topology in neutral and acidic pH by gel electrophoresis; and (ii) the transformation efficiency of an wild type E. coli strain. Treatment of plasmid DNA pUC 9.1 with SnCl2, at pH 7.4, results in DNA single-strand breaks (SSB), in a dose-dependent manner. Addition of sodium benzoate partly inhibited the DNA damage, while EDTA completely abolishes DNA-SSB. Furthermore, the ability of the plasmid to transform E. coli was reduced. At pH 1.3, SnCl2 exerts a protective effect on plasmid against HCI depurination. Our results suggest the generation of ROS, such as *OH by a Fenton-like reaction, close to the site of the lesions due to a possible complexation of stannous ion to DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Dantas
- Departamento de Biofisica e Biometria, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcântara Gomes, UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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