Tissue-specific expression of the Ets gene Xsap-1 during Xenopus laevis development

Downstream of FGF during mesoderm formation in Xenopus: the roles of Elk-1 and Egr-1

Signalling by members of the FGF family is required for induction and maintenance of the mesoderm during amphibian development. One of the downstream effectors of FGF is the SRF-interacting Ets family member Elk-1, which, after phosphorylation by MAP kinase, activates the expression of immediate-early genes. Here, we show that Xenopus Elk-1 is phosphorylated in response to FGF signalling in a dynamic pattern throughout the embryo. Loss of XElk-1 function causes reduced expression of Xbra at neurula stages, followed by a failure to form notochord and muscle and then the partial loss of trunk structures. One of the genes regulated by XElk-1 is XEgr-1, which encodes a zinc finger transcription factor: we show that phosphorylated XElk-1 forms a complex with XSRF that binds to the XEgr-1 promoter. Superficially, Xenopus tropicalis embryos with reduced levels of XEgr-1 resemble those lacking XElk-1, but to our surprise, levels of Xbra are elevated at late gastrula stages in such embryos, and over-expression of XEgr-1 causes the down-regulation of Xbra both in whole embryos and in animal pole regions treated with activin or FGF. In contrast, the myogenic regulatory factor XMyoD is activated by XEgr-1 in a direct manner. We discuss these counterintuitive results in terms of the genetic regulatory network to which XEgr-1 contributes.

Complexity in transcription control at the activation domain-mediator interface

Transcript elongation by polymerase II paused at the Egr1 promoter is activated by mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation of the ternary complex factor (TCF) ELK1 bound at multiple upstream sites and subsequent phospho-ELK1 interaction with mediator through the MED23 subunit. Consequently, Med23 knockout (KO) nearly eliminates Egr1 (early growth response factor 1) transcription in embryonic stem (ES) cells, leaving a paused polymerase at the promoter. Med23 KO did not, however, eliminate Egr1 transcription in fibroblasts. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis and direct visualization of fluorescently labeled TCF derivatives and mediator subunits revealed that three closely related TCFs bound to the same control regions. The relative amounts of these TCFs, which responded differently to the loss of MED23, differed in ES cells and fibroblasts. Transcriptome analysis suggests that most genes expressed in both cell types, such as Egr1, are regulated by alternative transcription factors in the two cell types that respond differently to the same signal transduction pathways.

Gene regulatory networks that control the specification of neural-crest cells in the lamprey

The lamprey is the only basal vertebrate in which large-scale gene perturbation analyses are feasible at present. Studies on this unique animal model promise to contribute both to the understanding of the basic neural-crest gene regulatory network architecture, and evolution of the neural crest. In this review, we summarize the currently known regulatory relationships underlying formation of the vertebrate neural crest, and discuss new ways of addressing the many remaining questions using lamprey as an experimental model.

Ets ternary complex transcription factors

The three ternary complex factors (TCFs) Elk-1, Net and Sap-1 form a subfamily of the E twenty-six (Ets) domain transcription factors. Their characteristic property is the ability to form a ternary nucleoprotein complex with the serum response factor (SRF) over the serum response element (SRE) of the c-fos promoter. The molecular mechanisms that underlie the function and regulation of these factors have been extensively studied and the TCFs are a paradigm for the study of transcriptional regulation in response to extracellular signalling through the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway. As final effectors of multiple signalling pathways and components of protein complexes on immediate early promoters, they represent key elements in the complex and dynamic regulation of gene expression. This review summarises the molecular, structural and biochemical studies that have led to the understanding of the functional domains of the TCFs, ternary complex formation, transcriptional regulation, protein partners and target genes in cell lines. Finally, the emerging studies of the biological roles of the TCFs in vivo will be discussed.