Fate of the aortic root after arterial switch operation

Is slim better than paunchy?

BACKGROUND

Aortopulmonary mismatch (APM) in transposition of the great arteries (TGA) may be accountable for dilatation of neoaortic root and regurgitation of neoaortic valve as late complications of arterial switch operation (ASO). The manuscript from Arcieri et al. highlights an important aspect of the ASO technique: should we approach APM during ASO and what would be the best strategy to do so?

DISCUSSION

Techniques to approach APM at the time of ASO have been published sporadically and are very rarely employed by surgeons. Reconstruction of the neoaorta is generally achieved by trimming the suture line between the pulmonary root (neoaortic root) and ascending aorta resulting in an abnormal dilated and bulky neoaortic root already at the time of ASO.

CONCLUSION

Reduction of the pulmonary root dimension by ressection of a fragment of the pulmonary artery wall possibly results in a more homogenous neoaorta with consequent better hemodynamics. We believe that approaching APM during ASO will have a compelling positive impact on the late survival of patients with complex TGA.

Valve-sparing aortic root replacement after neonatal arterial switch operation

Arterial switch operations (ASO) are lifesaving procedures performed on neonates to treat transposition of the great arteries. However, future operations on the neoaorta may be required due to dilation. We present a case of a 25-year-old female who presented with dilation of her neoaorta and required a David procedure. Her previous ASO resulted in an anterior lie of the pulmonary artery in front of the neoaorta, with both coronary arteries coming off anteriorly. We describe our approach to performing a David procedure on this patient with this unique anatomy.

Growth Pattern of the Neo-Aorta after Arterial Switch Operation during Childhood

Background and Objectives

Neo-aortic root dilatation (ARD) and annular dilatation (AAD) tend to develop after arterial switch operation (ASO). However, the trend of neo-aortic growth has not been well established. This paper aims to identify this trend, its associated factors, and predictors of neo-aortic dilatation after ASO.

Methods

We analyzed the growth trend of the neo-aortic root, annulus, and sinotubular junction (STJ) z-scores using random coefficients model and the risk factors affecting neo-aortic dilatation in 163 patients who underwent ASO from 2006 to 2015.

Results

Among 163 patients, 41 had a ventricular septal defect, and 11 had Taussig-Bing (TB) anomaly. The median follow-up duration was 6.61 years. The increased in the neo-aortic root z-score was different between the trapdoor and non-trapdoor coronary artery transfer techniques (0.149/year, p<0.001 vs. 0.311/year, p<0.001). Moreover, the neo-aortic annulus and STJ z-score significantly increased over time after ASO (0.067/year, p<0.001; 0.309/year, p<0.001). Pulmonary artery banding (PAB) was rather a negative affecting factor. The probabilities of freedom from ARD, AAD, and neo-aortic STJ dilatation at 10 years after ASO were 33.4%, 53.9%, and 65.4%. Neo- aortic regurgitation within 1 year was the predictor of ARD, AAD, and neo-aortic STJ dilatation. TB anomaly, PAB, and native pulmonary sinus z-score were other predictors for ARD.

Conclusion

The growth of neo-aortic root, annulus, and STJ after ASO was greater than somatic growth during childhood. The coronary artery transfer technique affected the growth pattern of the neo-aortic root.

Progression of aortic root dilatation and aortic valve regurgitation after the arterial switch operation

Objective

To study neo-aortic growth and the evolution of neo-aortic valve regurgitation (AR) in patients with transposition of the great arteries (TGA) after arterial switch operation (ASO) from newborn to adulthood and to identify patients at risk.

Methods

Neo-aortic dimensions (annulus/root/sinotubular junction) and neo-aortic valve regurgitation were assessed serially in 345 patients with TGA who underwent ASO between 1977 and 2015. Linear mixed-effect models were used to assess increase of neo-aortic dimensions over time and to identify risk factors for dilatation. Risk factor analysis for AR by using time-dependent Cox regression models.

Results

After a rapid increase in the first year after ASO and proportional growth in childhood, neo-aortic dimensions continue to increase in adulthood without stabilisation. Annual diameter increase in adulthood was 0.39±0.06, 0.63±0.09 and 0.54±0.11 mm for, respectively, neo-aortic annulus, root and sinotubular junction, all significantly exceeding normal growth. AR continues to develop over time: freedom from AR ≥moderate during the first 25 years post-ASO was 69%. Risk factors for root dilatation were complex TGA anatomy (TGA-ventricular septal defect (VSD), double outlet right ventricle with subpulmonary VSD) and male gender. Risk factors for AR ≥moderate were: complex TGA anatomy and neo-aortic growth. Per millimetre increase in aortic root dimension, there was a 9% increase in the hazard of AR ≥moderate. Bicuspid pulmonary valve did not relate to the presence of root dilatation or AR.

Conclusion

After ASO, neo-aortic dilatation proceeds beyond childhood and is associated with an increase in AR incidence over time. Careful follow-up of the neo-aortic valve and root function is mandatory, especially in males and in patients with complex TGA anatomy.

Does Coronary Reimplantation After Neoaortic Reconstruction Increase Aortic Regurgitation?

Coronary reimplantation after neoaortic reconstruction (CRANR) in the arterial switch operation (ASO) allows easy selection of accurate coronary transfer sites in the distended neoaorta. However, neoaortic valve injury may occur during coronary reimplantation. We determined whether the CRANR procedure increased the incidence of aortic valve regurgitation (AR) after ASO. Between March 1994 and August 2017, 227 patients underwent ASO. Since September 2000 CRANR has been performed on 155 patients and open coronary reimplantation (OCR) on 72. Patients who had undergone aortocoronary flaps procedures (n = 13), had early or late mortality (n = 27), or lacked data (n = 11) were excluded. We enrolled and retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 176 patients who were followed up for postoperative AR: 38 underwent OCR and 138 underwent CRANR. We compared the incidences of early and late postoperative AR in both groups. We defined mild or greater AR as "significant AR." The groups did not differ in body weight at operation, great artery relationship, and coronary artery anatomy. The incidences of significant AR at discharge were 21.1% (8/38) in the OCR group and 16.6% (23/138) in the CRANR group (p = 0.53). The freedom from significant AR at 5 years was 59.9% in the OCR group and 62.4% in the CRANR group with no difference between the two groups (p = 0.73). Moderate AR occurred in one patient in the CRANR group. No surgical intervention was required for the aortic valve in either group. ASO using the CRANR technique did not increase the incidence of postoperative early and late AR.

Ascending aortic dilation in adult patients with congenital ventricular septal defect: An observational study

Many adult patients with congenital ventricular septal defect (VSD) also developed ascending aortic dilation, but few report the clinical features and surgical management of these patients. This study was designed to study ascending aortic dilation in adult patients with congenital VSD, and summarized the treatment experience and prognosis.To assess the clinical features and surgical management, we performed a retrospective analysis on preoperative data, intraoperative data, and postoperative data from the adult patients with congenital VSD who developed ascending aortic dilation in our institution from February 2010 to December 2016.From February 2010 to December 2016, we operated on 13 adult patients (12 males, 92.31%) with VSD who developed ascending aortic dilation. Median age was 37 (interquartile range 14) years. All patients suffered from perimembranous VSD and received surgical treatment. Their symptoms were all improved after surgery, no deaths occurred.Surgery is feasible for the ascending aortic dilation in adult patients with congenital VSD. Both proper perioperative treatment and close monitoring are required for the successful surgery.

Development of quality metrics for ambulatory pediatric cardiology: Transposition of the great arteries after arterial switch operation

OBJECTIVE

To develop quality metrics (QMs) for the ambulatory care of patients with transposition of the great arteries following arterial switch operation (TGA/ASO).

DESIGN

Under the auspices of the American College of Cardiology Adult Congenital and Pediatric Cardiology (ACPC) Steering committee, the TGA/ASO team generated candidate QMs related to TGA/ASO ambulatory care. Candidate QMs were submitted to the ACPC Steering Committee and were reviewed for validity and feasibility using individual expert panel member scoring according to the RAND-UCLA methodology. QMs were then made available for review by the entire ACC ACPC during an "open comment period." Final approval of each QM was provided by a vote of the ACC ACPC Council.

PATIENTS

Patients with TGA who had undergone an ASO were included. Patients with complex transposition were excluded.

RESULTS

Twelve candidate QMs were generated. Seven metrics passed the RAND-UCLA process. Four passed the "open comment period" and were ultimately approved by the Council. These included: (1) at least 1 echocardiogram performed during the first year of life reporting on the function, aortic dimension, degree of neoaortic valve insufficiency, the patency of the systemic and pulmonary outflows, the patency of the branch pulmonary arteries and coronary arteries, (2) neurodevelopmental (ND) assessment after ASO; (3) lipid profile by age 11 years; and (4) documentation of a transition of care plan to an adult congenital heart disease (CHD) provider by 18 years of age.

CONCLUSIONS

Application of the RAND-UCLA methodology and linkage of this methodology to the ACPC approval process led to successful generation of 4 QMs relevant to the care of TGA/ASO pediatric patients in the ambulatory setting. These metrics have now been incorporated into the ACPC Quality Network providing guidance for the care of TGA/ASO patients across 30 CHD centers.

Outcomes after Arterial Switch Operation for Simple Transposition

Without intervention, babies born with transposed great arteries (TGA) are doomed to a rapid death. Jatene and coworkers deserve the credit for performing the first successful arterial switch operation (ASO) in a patient with TGA and ventricular septal defect (VSD) in 1975. Since then ASO has become the procedure of choice in most medical centers. This review article summarizes the historical aspects of arterial switch operation and assesses this procedure's outcomes.

Aortopathy associated with congenital heart disease: A current literature review

In patients born with congenital heart disease, dilatation of the aorta is a frequent feature at presentation and during follow-up after surgical intervention. This review provides an overview of the pathologies associated with aortopathy, and discusses the current knowledge on pathophysiology, evolution, and treatment guidelines of the aortic disease associated with congenital heart defects.

Persistent neo-aortic growth during adulthood in patients after an arterial switch operation

OBJECTIVE

After the arterial switch operation (ASO), disproportional neo-aortic growth during childhood has been reported. Even though it has been suggested neo-aortic dilation will stabilise in adulthood, data are lacking. The aim of this study was to assess the change in neo-aortic dimensions, prevalence of neo-aortic dilation >40 mm and long-term outcome in adults who underwent ASO in childhood.

METHODS

All 116 ASO patients operated in a tertiary referral centre and born before 1995 were included. Of these, 83 (72%) survived to adulthood (>17 years) and six were lost to follow-up. Neo-aortic measurements performed in adulthood were collected from available echocardiographic, cardiovascular magnetic resonance and CT images. The time trend was analysed using a mixed model, adjusted for imaging modality.

RESULTS

Clinical data with at least one measurement of the neo-aortic diameter were available in 77 (93%) adult patients and serial measurements in 65 (78%). At baseline (median age 18.1 years), mean neo-aortic diameter was 36±5 mm. Mean neo-aortic growth was 0.31 mm/year (p<0.001 compared with normal value 0.08 mm/year) and was linear over time. Freedom from neo-aortic dilation beyond a diameter of 40 mm was 23% at 28 years of age. During a mean clinical follow-up in adulthood of 7.2 years (IQR 4.0 to 10.1), 3 (4%) patients underwent neo-aortic replacement. No other neo-aortic complications occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

In early adulthood, neo-aortic growth was on average linear and did not stabilise over time.

The neoaortic root in children with transposition of the great arteries after an arterial switch operation

OBJECTIVES

Neoaortic root changes in children with transposition of the great arteries (TGA) are reportedly risk factors for the development of neoaortic regurgitation (NeoAR). The aims of this study were to assess the neoaortic root diameter and relative proportion in children with TGA after surgical correction and to identify possible correlations with the development of neoaortic insufficiency.

METHODS

Of the 611 children who had the arterial switch operation performed in the Cardiology Department of the Polish Mother's Memorial Hospital, 172 consecutive patients were qualified for this study. The inclusion criteria were: anatomical correction performed during the neonatal period, more than 10 years of postoperative observation and at least two full echocardiographic examinations.

RESULTS

NeoAR increased during postoperative follow-up and at the end of the observation period, 76% of the patients had NeoAR (27%-trace, 42%-mild, 7%-moderate and 0.6%-severe). Among the analysed risk factors for NeoAR development, the significant ones were arterial valve discrepancy (OR = 2.05; 95% CI: 1.04-4.02; P = 0.031) and the non-facing commissures (OR = 4.05; 95% CI: 1.34-11.9; P = 0.01). The neoaortic root diameter was not statistically significantly correlated with the presence of NeoAR or with the heart defects associated with transposition. The neoaortic root was initially, on average, 37% (z-score = 1.58) bigger than the aortic root in healthy children. This disproportion increased during the follow-up evaluations to 57% (z-score = 2.09).

CONCLUSIONS

The neoaortic root in children after the arterial switch procedure develops differently from that in healthy children, but this is not evidently related to NeoAR development or associated heart defects.

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance as an alternate method for serial evaluation of proximal aorta: comparison with echocardiography

Thoracic aortic disease is a known cause of aortic dilatation and poses significant risk of aortic dissection and rupture. Serial assessment of aortic root dimensions is traditionally performed using echocardiography, which is limited with older age and following surgery, due to poor acoustic windows. Although diastolic measurements are utilized as standard practice in decision making of adult aortopathy, systolic diameters are utilized in pediatric practice. Three-dimensional steady-state free precision (3D-SSFP) has shown promise as an alternate method for providing accurate and reproducible aortic measurements. The agreement between proximal aorta measurements by diastolic 3D-SSFP and echocardiography (both systole and diastole) was examined in 40 subjects. The maximum inner diameters at aortic annulus, root and sinotubular junction demonstrated excellent agreement between 3D-SSFP and echocardiography for all the 3 levels. The best agreement was observed for diastolic root dimensions with a mean difference of +0.01 cm, limits of agreement being -0.26 to +0.28 cm. Three D-SSFP can be used interchangeably with echocardiography in the serial assessment of the aortic root size. Careful attention to obtain an imaging plane utilizing 3D multiplanar reformatting is critical to maximize the agreement between the two imaging modalities.

Long-term outcomes of the neoaorta after arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries

BACKGROUND

After the arterial switch operation (ASO) for transposition of the great arteries (TGA), the native pulmonary root and valve function in the systemic position, and the long-term risk for neoaortic root dilation and valve regurgitation is currently undefined. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and progression of neoaortic root dilation and neoaortic valve regurgitation in patients with TGA repaired with the ASO.

METHODS

Measurements of the neoaortic annulus, neoaortic root at the level of the sinuses of Valsalva, and the degree of neoaortic regurgitation were assessed by serial transthoracic echocardiograms on 124 patients with TGA at a median follow-up of 7.2 years (range, 1 to 23 years) after the ASO at our institution.

RESULTS

Neoaortic root dilation with z scores of 2.5 or greater was identified in 66%, and the root diameter z score increased at an average rate of 0.08 per year over time after ASO. Freedom from neoaortic root dilation at 1, 5, 10, and 15 years after ASO was 84%, 67%, 47%, and 32%, respectively. Risk factors for root dilation include history of double-outlet right ventricle (p = 0.003), previous pulmonary artery banding (p = 0.01), and length of follow-up (p = 0.04). Neoaortic valve regurgitation of at least moderate degree was present in 14%. Neoaortic root dilation was a significant risk factor for neoaortic valve regurgitation (p < 0.0001). No patient required reintervention on the neoaorta or neoaortic valve during follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Progressive neoaortic root dilation is common in patients with TGA after the ASO. Continued surveillance of this population is required.

Twenty-eight years' experience of arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries in a single institution

OBJECTIVES

We reviewed our 28 years of experience of arterial switch operation (ASO) for transposition of the great arteries to investigate late sequelae of this procedure.

METHODS

387 patients who underwent ASO from 1984 to 2010 were included in this retrospective study. The longitudinal data were estimated by the Kaplan-Meier method and compared using a log-rank test. Risk factors for late sequelae were analysed by the multivariable Cox proportional hazards model.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up time was 10.0 years. There were 13 early deaths and 17 late deaths. All late deaths were within 1 year, except for three patients. Actuarial survival was 92.2 and 91.6% at 10 and 20 years, respectively. Sixty-six patients (17.1%) had developed pulmonary stenosis (PS) and 29 patients (7.5%) had developed moderate or more aortic insufficiency (AI) during follow-up. Selective coronary angiography was performed in 210 patients (54.3%) at 9.6 ± 5.1 years after ASO. Left main tract occlusion was found in 2 patients (2/210; 1.0%) and hypoplastic left coronary artery was found in 10 patients (10/210; 4.8%). Among these 12 patients, 8 patients were asymptomatic. Re-operation was performed in 76 patients (19.6%), pulmonary artery plasty for PS in 58 patients (15.0%), aortic valve replacement for AI including two Bentall operations in 9 patients (2.3%) and others. Freedom from re-operation was 78.2 and 62.8% at 10 and 20 years, respectively. The risk factor for PS was the use of equine pericardium for reconstruction (P < 0.0001). Factors associated with moderate or more AI was the presence of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction (P = 0.004). There were no risk factors for late coronary lesions. Three hundred and forty surviving patients (340/357; 95.2%) were in NYHA functional class I. Treadmill test, which was performed on 217 patients (56.1%) at 14.3 ± 5.4 years after ASO, revealed that the maximum heart rate was 97.5 ± 7.6% of normal and peak oxygen consumption was 105.2 ± 20.5% of normal.

CONCLUSIONS

ASO was performed with satisfactory results in the overall survival and functional status. PS was the main reason for re-operation. Coronary lesions can appear late without any symptoms. Benefits of ASO can be achieved by long-term follow-ups of PS, AI and coronary lesions.

Late Complications Following the Arterial Switch Operation

The arterial switch operation has been the principal treatment for transposition of the great arteries and its variants for the last 25 years. Early mortality has decreased significantly over time, but long-term complications include pulmonary artery stenosis, coronary artery obstruction, neoaortic valvar insufficiency, arrhythmia, and aortic arch obstruction. This article provides an overview of the history, anatomic patterns, surgical results, and possible operative solutions discussed in the literature for patients with transposition of the great arteries who undergo arterial switch operations that result in late complications. Published journal articles were identified through PubMed literature search. The authors selected 72 articles for analysis. It is concluded that modifications can be made to the arterial switch operation in an effort to meet the challenges presented by late complications.

Guidelines for the outpatient management of complex congenital heart disease

An increasingly complex group of children is now being followed as outpatients after surgery for congenital heart disease. A variety of complications and physiologic perturbations, both expected and unexpected, may present during follow-up, and should be anticipated by the practitioner and discussed with the patient and family. The purpose of this position article is to provide a framework for outpatient follow-up of complex congenital heart disease, based on a review of current literature and the experience of the authors.

Accuracy of intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography in the prediction of future neo-aortic valve function after the Ross procedure in children and young adults

OBJECTIVE

Neo-aortic insufficiency (neo-AI) has been noted following the Ross procedure. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ability of intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) to predict future neo-AI in pediatric patients undergoing the Ross from January 1995 to December 2003, who had an intraoperative TEE, and discharge and follow-up transthoracic (TTE) echocardiograms.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

PATIENTS

All patients who underwent the Ross procedure at Children's Hospital of Philadephia between January 1995 and December 2003, and had an intraoperative TEE, discharge, and follow-up (>6 months) transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) (by July 1, 2004) were included.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Grade of neo-AI was assessed on intraoperative TEE, discharge, and follow-up TTE echocardiogram reports.

RESULTS

Follow-up was available in 99/115 (86%) survivors. Median age at Ross was 9.3 years (4 days-34 years). No patient had more than mild neo-AI on intraoperative TEE. At discharge, 2 patients (2%) had moderate neo-AI. At most recent follow-up (median 4.2 years, 8 months-9.3 years), 21 patients (21%) had moderate or greater neo-AI; 9 underwent neo-aortic reintervention. The presence of any neo-AI on intraoperative TEE had 100% sensitivity and negative predictive value for diagnosing moderate or greater neo-AI at discharge. Patients who had mild neo-AI on TEE were more likely to have moderate or greater neo-AI at most recent follow-up than those patients with no neo-AI on TEE (9% vs. 30%, P = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Intraoperative TEE is an excellent screening tool for the presence of significant neo-AI at the time of hospital discharge. Neo-AI progresses over time after Ross procedure and is more likely to progress in those patients with neo-AI on intraoperative TEE. However, predictive validity decreases over time as neo-AI progresses.

Onset of neoaortic root dilation 18 years after an arterial switch operation

It has been claimed that neoaortic root dilatation or enlargement with aortic regurgitation is progressive until 11 years after an arterial switch operation. We report a case of neoaortic root dilatation onset occurring 18 years after operation and discuss the pathological features and the possible acting mechanisms.

The Relationship Between Neo-Aortic Root Dilation, Insufficiency, and Reintervention Following the Ross Procedure in Infants, Children, and Young Adults

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to describe the relationship between neo-aortic root size, neo-aortic insufficiency (AI), and reintervention at mid-term follow-up.

BACKGROUND

Data on neo-aortic valve function and growth after the Ross procedure in children are limited.

METHODS

A total of 74 of 119 Ross patients from January 1995 to December 2003 had > or =2 follow-up echocardiograms at our institution and were included. Neo-aortic dimensions were converted to z-scores and modeled over time. Kaplan-Meier analysis was used to assess freedom from neo-aortic outcomes, and predictors were identified through multivariate analysis.

RESULTS

Median age at Ross was 9 years (range 3 days to 34 years). Over 4.7 years (range 3 months to 9.3 years) follow-up, there was disproportionate enlargement of the neo-aortic root (z-score increase of 0.75/year [p < 0.0001]). Neo-AI progressed > or =1 grade in 36% of patients and > or =2 grades in 15%. Nine patients (12%) had neo-aortic reintervention at 2.0 years (range 1.1 to 9.5 years) after the Ross procedure owing to severe neo-AI (n = 7), neo-aortic root dilation (n = 1), and neo-aortic pseudoaneurysm (n = 1). At 6 years after the Ross procedure, freedom from neo-aortic reintervention was 88%. Freedom from neo-aortic root z-score >4 was only 3% and from moderate or greater neo-AI was 60%. Longer follow-up time was associated with neo-aortic root dilation (p < 0.0001). Prior ventricular septal defect (VSD) repair predicted neo-AI (p = 0.02) and reintervention (p = 0.03). Prior aortic valve replacement (p = 0.002) also predicted neo-AI. Neo-aortic root dilation was not associated with neo-AI or reintervention.

CONCLUSIONS

At mid-term follow-up after the Ross procedure, neo-aortic root size increases significantly out of proportion to somatic growth, and neo-AI is progressive. Prior VSD repair and aortic valve replacement were associated with neo-AI and reintervention.

Midterm outcomes and predictors of reintervention after the Ross procedure in infants, children, and young adults

OBJECTIVES

This study assessed the type, time course, and risk factors for right and left ventricular outflow tract reinterventions after the Ross procedure in a population of infants, children, and young adults.

METHODS

Patients who underwent the Ross procedure between January 1995 and June 2004 were included (n = 121 consecutive patients). Kaplan-Meier and hazard analyses of right and left ventricular outflow tract reinterventions were performed, and predictors of reintervention were identified through multivariate analysis.

RESULTS

The median age at the Ross procedure was 8.2 years (4 days to 34 years); 20% were aged less than 1 year. Half of the patients had isolated aortic valve disease; the other half had complex left-sided heart disease. Early mortality (<30 days) was 2.5% (n = 3). There were 2 late deaths (1.7%). Follow-up (median 6.5 years [2.5 months to 10.4 years]) was available for 96% of survivors (n = 111). Right ventricular outflow tract reintervention (n = 22 in 15 patients) was performed 2.0 years (2.0 weeks to 9.8 years) after the Ross procedure because of stenosis in 19 of 22 cases. Freedom from right ventricular outflow tract reintervention at 8 years was 81%. Smaller homograft size was the strongest predictor (P < .001) of right ventricular outflow tract reintervention. Left ventricular outflow tract reintervention (n = 15 in 15 patients) was performed 2.8 years (1.0 months to 11.6 years) after the Ross procedure because of severe neoaortic insufficiency in 10 of 15 patients. Freedom from left ventricular outflow tract reintervention at 8 years was 83%. Native pulmonary valve abnormalities (P < .01), original diagnosis of aortic insufficiency (P < .01), prior aortic valve replacement (P = .01), and prior ventricular septal defect repair (P = .04) predicted left ventricular outflow tract reintervention.

CONCLUSIONS

At midterm follow-up after the Ross procedure, interim mortality is rare. Neoaortic insufficiency and right ventricle to pulmonary artery conduit obstruction are common postoperative sequelae, requiring reintervention in one quarter of patients.

Aortic root dysfunctioning and its effect on left ventricular function in Ross procedure patients assessed with magnetic resonance imaging

BACKGROUND

This study evaluated the diameters and distensibility of the aortic root as well as the degree of aortic regurgitation (AR) and its effect on left ventricular (LV) function in patients 8.2 +/- 3.1 years after they underwent the Ross procedure, with a comparison of these parameters between patients and matched healthy subjects.

METHODS

Eighteen Ross procedure patients (16 male patients, age [mean +/- SD] 19.2 +/- 3.8 years) and 18 matched healthy subjects (16 male patients, age [mean +/- SD] 19.7 +/- 4.2 years) underwent magnetic resonance imaging. Measurements for diameters (at 4 levels) and the distensibility of the aortic root were performed using a steady-state free precession sequence. Aortic flow was assessed with a velocity-encoded phase-contrast sequence. Left ventricular systolic function was assessed with a gradient-echo sequence in the short-axis plane. Comparison of parameters was performed using the Mann-Whitney U test. Correlations between diameters, distensibility, AR fraction, and LV systolic function were expressed with Spearman rank correlation coefficients. Linear regression analysis was used to identify predictors of LV systolic dysfunction.

RESULTS

Aortic root diameters were increased in Ross procedure patients as compared with healthy subjects (mean difference 6.3-11.6 mm, P < or = .02 at all 4 levels). Distensibility of the aortic root was lower in patients (1.9 +/- 1.1 vs 7.8 +/- 3.3 mm Hg(-1), P < .01). An AR fraction > 5% was present in 14 of the 18 patients (mean AR fraction 8% +/- 5% vs 1% +/- 1%, P < .01). Left ventricular ejection fraction was lower in patients (50% +/- 6% vs 57% +/- 6%, P < .01). Dilatation, decreased distensibility, and AR fraction were correlated with impaired LV systolic function (P < .05 for all). The AR fraction predicted impaired LV systolic function (P < .01).

CONCLUSIONS

Magnetic resonance imaging shows dilatation and decreased distensibility of the aortic root, AR, and consequent impaired LV systolic function in patients after the Ross procedure.

Neo-aortic valvar function after the arterial switch

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of our study was to assess the prevalence and progression, during childhood and adolescence, of dilation of the neo-aortic root, and neo-aortic valvar regurgitation, and to identify risk factors for such dilation and regurgitation, after the arterial switch operation.

METHODS

We included all patients who had undergone an arterial switch operation at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, and had been followed for a minimum of 4 years, and had at least 2 postoperative echocardiograms. Neo-aortic valvar regurgitation was quantitatively assessed, and measurements were made of the neo-aortic root at the level of the basal attachment of the leaflets, mid-sinusal level, and the sinutubular junction.

RESULTS

We found 82 patients who satisfied the criterions for inclusion, of whom 52 patients had transposition with an intact ventricular septum, and 30 had either an associated ventricular septal defect or double outlet right ventricle. The median follow-up time was 8.8 years (4.1 to 16.4 years). The neo-aortic valve had been replaced in 1 patient. Of the patients, 3 had moderate, 66 had trivial to mild, and 12 had no neo-aortic valvar regurgitation at their most recent follow-up. The regurgitation had progressed by at least 1 grade in 38 of the 82 patients (46.4%). Neo-aortic dilation was noted at the basal attachment of the leaflets, and at mid-sinusal level, which was out of proportion to somatic growth.

CONCLUSIONS

At mid-term follow-up, significant neo-aortic valve regurgitation is present in 3.7%, and trivial to mild regurgitation in 81.4% of patients. The regurgitation progressed in almost half of the patients over time. We also noted progressive dilation of the neo-aortic root out of proportion to somatic growth.

Is the arterial switch operation as good over the long term as we thought it would be?

Surgical intervention for hearts with transposition, defined as concordant atrioventricular and discordant ventriculo-arterial connections, has been one of the landmark achievements in the field of paediatric cardiac surgery. In the early 1950s, pioneer surgeons attempted to palliate patients with transposed arterial trunks with an early form of the arterial switch operation. As a result of initially dismal outcomes secondary to difficulties with coronary arterial transfer, the unprepared nature of the morphologically left ventricle, and primitive methods for cardiopulmonary bypass, the arterial switch was abandoned in favour of several procedures achieving correction at atrial and venous levels, culminating in the Mustard and Senning operations.1,2These innovative procedures produced the earliest surviving children with transposition. Although the atrial switch procedures achieved widespread acceptance and success during the mid-1960s through the mid-1980s, the search for an operation to return the great arteries to their normal anatomic positions continued. This pursuit was stimulated primarily by the accumulating observations in mid-to-late term follow up studies of: an increasing frequency of important arrhythmic complications, including sinus nodal dysfunction, atrial arrhythmias, and sudden, unexplained death, by the development of late right ventricular dysfunction and significant tricuspid regurgitation in a ventricle potentially unsuited for a lifetime of systemic function by a small but important prevalence of obstruction of the systemic and/or pulmonary venous pathways, and by dissatisfaction with the operative mortality in the subgroup of infants complicated by additional presence of a large ventricular septal defect.3–6As we have already discussed, a number of novel procedures to achieve anatomic correction had been described as early as 1954, but clinical success was not accomplished until 1975, when Jatene and co-workers7astounded the world of paediatric cardiology with their initial description.

Aortic valve regurgitation after arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries: incidence, risk factors, and outcome

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this study were to assess the prevalence and incidence of aortic valve regurgitation (AR) after arterial switch operation (ASO), its outcome, and the risk factors.

BACKGROUND

After an ASO, the long-term fate of the aortic valve is a concern as follow-up lengthens.

METHODS

Operative and follow-up data on 1,156 hospital survivors after ASOs between 1982 and December 2000 were reviewed.

RESULTS

At last follow-up (mean duration 76.2 +/- 60.5 months), 172 patients (14.9%) had an AR. Complex transposition of the great arteries, prior pulmonary banding done in 75 patients (21 with intact ventricular septum), aortic arch anomalies, AR at discharge, older age at ASO, and aortic/pulmonary size discrepancy were associated with AR. On multivariate analysis, the presence of a ventricular septal defect (VSD) or AR at discharge multiplied the risk by 2 and 4, respectively. Freedom from AR was 77.9% and 69.5% at 10 and 15 years, respectively; hazard function for AR declined rapidly and slowly increased thereafter. Reoperation from AR was done in 16 patients with one death, valvuloplasty being unsuccessful. Freedom from reoperation for AR was 97.7% and 96.8% at 10 and 15 years, respectively; hazard function slowly increased from 2 to 16 years. Higher late mortality was not associated with AR.

CONCLUSIONS

After ASO, AR was observed and was related to VSD with attending high pressure and flow and AR at discharge. Progression of AR was slow, but incidence increased with follow-up. Reoperation for AR was rare. Late aortic valve function warrants long-term monitoring.

Is there a possibility for a glutaraldehyde-free porcine heart valve to grow?

OBJECTIVE

A challenging issue is to create a heart valve with growth and remodeling potential, which would be of great interest for congenital heart valve surgery. This study was performed to evaluate the growth and remodeling potentials of a decellularized heart valve.

METHODS

In 4 juvenile sheep (age 12 +/- 1 weeks) with a weight of 24.3 +/- 4.4 kg, a 17-mm diameter decellularized porcine valve was implanted as pulmonary valve replacement. Valve growth was evaluated by transthoracic echocardiography. At explantation, valves were evaluated by gross examination, light microscopy (hematoxylin and eosin, von Kossa, Sirius red, Weigert and Gomori staining), electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Atomic absorption spectrometry was performed to evaluate calcium content.

RESULTS

All animals showed fast recovery. The mean follow-up was 9.0 +/- 1.8 months. All sheep at least doubled their weight (54.3 +/- 9.2 kg). Echocardiography showed no regurgitation and a flow velocity of 0.7 +/- 0.1 m/s at the latest follow-up. The valve diameter increased from 17.6 +/- 0.5 to 27.5 +/- 2.1 mm (p < 0.018). Gross examination showed a similar wall thickness of the implanted valve and native pulmonary wall, with smooth and pliable leaflets. Histology showed a monolayer of endothelial cells, fibroblast ingrowth and production of new collagen. No calcification was seen at von Kossa staining, confirmed by low calcium content levels of the valve wall and leaflets at atomic absorption spectrometry.

CONCLUSIONS

This glutaraldehyde-free heart valve showed not only the absence of calcification, but also remodeling and growth potential.

Long-Term Results After Primary One-Stage Repair of Transposition of the Great Arteries and Aortic Arch Obstruction

OBJECTIVES

The study was designed to evaluate perioperative and late results after primary, single-stage arterial switch operation (ASO) associated with aortic arch obstruction repair. Outcome of patients with more than five years of follow-up were analyzed.

BACKGROUND

The treatment of patients with transposition of the great arteries, or other forms of ventriculoarterial discordance suitable for an ASO, with coexisting arch obstruction is a difficult task. Single-stage repair has become the treatment of choice at many institutions, but large series with long-term results are seldom reported.

METHODS

Between 1990 and 1998, a primary operation including aortic arch repair through a midline sternotomy was performed in 38 patients. The relief of arch obstruction was accomplished during a period of hypothermic circulatory arrest, employing a wide pericardial patch to enlarge the inner curvature of the entire arch in most patients.

RESULTS

There were nine (24%) hospital deaths. None could be directly related to aortic arch repair, but additional risk factors for an ASO were common (right ventricular hypoplasia, complex coronary anatomy, uncommon relationship between the great vessels or severe pulmonary hypertension). There were no late deaths. Four patients required cardiac reoperation, whereas three underwent successful treatment of recurrent coarctation with balloon angioplasty.

CONCLUSIONS

Infants with ventriculoarterial discordance and aortic arch obstruction represent a high-risk subgroup of candidates for an ASO. Despite a non-negligible operative mortality, single-stage primary repair represents the treatment of choice, and follow-up of operative survivors is favorable. Pericardial patch enlargement is a reliable technique for arch obstruction repair.

Late outcomes in patients with surgically treated congenital heart disease

Optimizing late outcomes should be the end result of improvements in medical and surgical care for congenital heart disease (CHD). In addition to mortality, significant morbidities after surgery for CHD need to be considered. These include the need for reintervention, cardiovascular complications, exercise limitations, neurocognitive morbidities, effects on pregnancy, difficulty obtaining insurance, need for chronic medications, and impaired functional status and quality of life. Long-term outcome studies are difficult to perform, and their interpretation is complicated by intervening changes in management. Specific discussion of long-term follow-up of tetralogy of Fallot, D-transposition of the great arteries, and hypoplastic left heart syndrome illustrates the myriad management changes over the last three decades, the challenges in predicting outcomes for recent patients, and the need for ongoing initiation of long-term follow-up studies.

Congenital heart disease never goes away, even when it has been 'treated': the adult with congenital heart disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

As the specialties of pediatrics and pediatric cardiology continue to forge ahead with better diagnoses, medical care, and surgical results, an expanding population of patients with congenital heart disease (CHD) outgrows the pediatric age group, yet does not quite graduate to routine adult cardiology or general medicine. The adult with congenital heart disease (ACHD) faces medical, surgical, and psychosocial issues that are unique to this population and must be addressed as such. This review attempts to discuss and highlight some of the important advances and controversies brought up in the past year, in the care and management of these patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

The past five to 10 years have seen dynamic interest in understanding sequelae of corrected, uncorrected, or palliated congenital heart disease. The search for the ideal surgery, optimal prosthesis, and a smooth transition to adult care continues and is reflected in the vast amount of academic work and publications in this field. Of particular interest, conduit reoperations and single ventricle pathway modifications are still an art and a science in evolution.

SUMMARY

While all are agreed that there is a pressing need to focus on the delivery of care to the adult with congenital heart disease, this essentially requires a clearer understanding of late sequelae of CHD. The sheer heterogeneity of anatomy, age, surgery, and institutional management protocols can make it difficult to develop clear guidelines. This review attempts to give an up-to-date perspective on some of the new findings related to the more common lesions and problems faced in this group.

Long-Term Predictors of Aortic Root Dilation and Aortic Regurgitation After Arterial Switch Operation

BACKGROUND

Neo-aortic root dilation (ARD) and neo-aortic regurgitation (AR) may be progressive after arterial switch operation (ASO) for d-loop transposition of the great arteries (dTGA). We sought to identify predictors of ARD and AR after ASO.

METHODS AND RESULTS

335 patients were identified who underwent ASO for dTGA with intact ventricular septum or ventricular septal defect (VSD), including double-outlet right ventricle (DORV), before 2001 with at least 1 postoperative echocardiogram at our institution, at least 1 year after ASO, and no previous atrial switch procedure (median follow-up of 5.0 years). Probability of freedom from ARD was 97%, 92%, 82%, and 51%, from at least moderate AR was 98%, 97%, 96%, and 93%, and from neo-aortic valve or root surgery was 100%, 100%, 99%, and 95%, at 1, 2, 5, and 10 years, respectively. For patients in whom ARD developed, progressive dilation was not observed during late follow-up. By Kaplan-Meier method, independent predictors of ARD, with neo-aortic root z-score of > or =3.0, were previous pulmonary artery band (PAB) (P=0.002, hazard ratio [HR]=2.4) and later time period when ASO was performed (P<0.002, HR=19.0). Risk factor for at least moderate AR was age > or =1 year at ASO (P=0.002, HR=5.8), which was closely related to VSD repair at ASO (P<0.001) and previous PAB.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant ARD and AR continue to develop over time after ASO, but ARD does not tend to be progressive during late follow-up. Previous PAB was a significant risk factor for ARD. Older age at time of ASO, presence of VSD, and previous PAB were risk factors for AR.

Risk factors for neo-aortic root enlargement and aortic regurgitation following arterial switch operation

The objectives of this study were to evaluate changes in dimension of the neo-aortic annulus, aortic root, and aortic anastomosis following arterial switch operation (ASO) and to identify risk factors for developing abnormal neo-aortic root enlargement and aortic regurgitation (AR). Prior studies report development of neo-aortic root dilatation and AR in a small subset of patients after ASO. Predisposing factors for neo-aortic root dilatation and development of moderate/severe AR are poorly understood. We performed a retrospective review of all patients with d-transposition of the great arteries (d-TGA) or double-outlet right ventricle with subpulmonary ventricular septal defect (VSD) who underwent ASO from May 1986 to January 2001. Serial echocardiograms were reviewed to measure neo-aortic annulus, root, and anastomosis diameter (z scores) and to determine progression of AR. Potential risk factors were assessed for developing neo-aortic root enlargement and AR. There were 119 patients (44 female and 75 male): 73 patients had simple d-TGA, 36 had d-TGA with ventricular septal defect, and 10 had a Taussig-Bing heart. The median duration of follow-up was 65 months (range, 12-180). The median neo-aortic root (z = 0.55+/-2.2; p < 0.01) and aortic annulus dimensions (z = 1.57+/-1.75; p < 0.01) were significantly increased over the study period. Aortic anastomosis diameter correlated with growth of the ascending aorta (z = 0.55+/-1.24). Development of severe neo-aortic root enlargement was associated with prior pulmonary artery (PA) banding (p < 0.01), the presence of a VSD (p = 0.03), and Taussig-Bing anatomy (p < 0.01) but was independent of coronary arterial anatomy, coronary arterial transfer technique, or associated lesions (p > 0.05). At latest follow-up, there was no or trivial AR in 88 patients, mild AR in 29 patients, and moderate to severe AR in 3 patients. Risk factors for developing mild or worse AR included severe or rapid neo-aortic root dilatation (p < 0.01). Only 3 patients required surgical intervention for AR. Despite the significant prevalence of neo-aortic root enlargement at intermediate follow-up after ASO, there is a low incidence of significant AR. Prior PA banding, the presence of VSD, and Taussig-Bing anatomy are risk factors for severe root enlargement. Surgical intervention for AR was rare (2%), however, serial surveillance of such patients is vital to monitor for neo-aortic root enlargement and potential aortic valve dysfunction.

Left-sided lesions after anatomic repair of transposition of the great arteries, ventricular septal defect, and coarctation: Surgical factors

OBJECTIVE

This study was undertaken to identify potential anatomic and surgical factors creating left-sided lesions, namely recoarctation of the aorta and neoaortic regurgitation, after anatomic repair of transposition of the great arteries with ventricular septal defect and aortic coarctation.

METHODS

From 1983 to September 2002, 109 survivors out of 120 patients were studied. Two-stage repair was performed in 42 patients (group A), and single-stage repair was performed in 67 (groups B and C). Before repair, the diameters of the ascending aorta and main pulmonary artery were measured. In the patients with single-stage repair, coarctation was repaired by extended end-to-end anastomosis in 35 patients (group B) and by pulmonary homograft patch augmentation in 32 patients (group C). The ventricular septal defect was closed through the pulmonary artery in 70 patients and through the right ventricle or atrium in 39 patients. The neoaorto-aortic discrepancy was treated by V-shaped resection of the posterior sinus of Valsalva in 7 cases, pulmonary homograft patch in 32 cases, and anterior splitting of the ascending aorta in all cases. Before discharge from the hospital, neoaortic root and ascending aorta diameters and aortic regurgitation grade were recorded. Neoaortic regurgitation progression and reintervention were the end points of follow-up (97.2 +/- 61.2 months).

RESULTS

Early and late survivals were significantly better in group C (P <.001). Risk factors for neoaortic regurgitation at discharge by univariate analysis were single-stage repair (P <.05) and ventricular septal defect closure through the pulmonary artery (P =.0076). On multivariate analysis, the latter was the only risk factor for neoaortic regurgitation at discharge and at last follow-up. Multivariate analysis showed that higher neoaortic root/ascending aorta ratio and ventricular septal defect closure through the pulmonary artery were risk factors for neoaortic regurgitation evolution at last follow-up. There were 29 reinterventions, 19 for recoarctation of the aorta and 10 for neoaortic regurgitation with or without aortic root dilatation. Group B (P <.05), high neoaortic root/ascending aorta ratio (P <.01), and progressive neoaortic regurgitation (P <.05) were risk factors for recoarctation of the aorta. Group A was a risk factor for aortic valve replacement at 10 years (P <.05).

CONCLUSION

Neonatal single-stage repair with pulmonary homograft aortic augmentation remains the optimal approach to transposition of the great arteries with ventricular septal defect and aortic coarctation. It provides better early and late survivals and freedoms from left-sided lesions. Avoidance of late recoarctation of the aorta and progressive neoaortic regurgitation requires meticulous closure of the ventricular septal defect and evenly sized reconstruction of the aorta from root to distal arch.

Prevalence and predictors of neoaortic regurgitation after arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries

BACKGROUND

The fate of the native pulmonary valve after arterial switch operation is still unknown and may become a cause for a secondary aortic valve operation during adult life. We evaluated the prevalence and predictive factors associated with neoaortic valvular regurgitation by a retrospective study of children who underwent arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries.

METHODS

The onset of neoaortic valvular regurgitation was correlated with demographic data, cardiac anatomy, surgical technique, and postoperative ventricular function. The size of the neoaortic root and ascending aorta was measured in a selected subset of patients.

RESULTS

Among 253 survivors, 173 were eligible for the study. After a median follow-up time of 8.2 years, 61 patients showed echocardiographic or angiographic evidence of valvular incompetence, which was progressive in 14 cases; this led to surgical intervention in 2 patients, and there was 1 operative death. At multivariate analysis, the onset of valvular regurgitation was correlated with the trap-door technique for coronary reimplantation (P <.01). A smooth transition from the aortic sinus to the ascending aorta, with loss of the normal sinotubular junction geometry, may be associated with valvular incompetence.

CONCLUSIONS

After arterial switch operation, there is an increasing frequency of neoaortic regurgitation, which may lead to significant valvular dysfunction later in life. The trap-door type of coronary reimplantation is associated with an increased risk for valvular dysfunction, possibly because of a distortion of the sinotubular junction geometry. For this reason, we recommend the punch technique for repair in all but the most complicated coronary pattern.