Genetics and biochemistry of Leishmania membrane transporters

A defined medium for Leishmania culture allows definition of essential amino acids

Axenic culture of Leishmania is generally performed in rich, serum-supplemented media which sustain robust growth over multiple passages. The use of such undefined media, however, obscures proteomic analyses and confounds the study of metabolism. We have established a simple, defined culture medium that supports the sustained growth of promastigotes over multiple passages and which yields parasites that have similar infectivity to macrophages to parasites grown in a conventional semi-defined medium. We have exploited this medium to investigate the amino acid requirements of promastigotes in culture and have found that phenylalanine, tryptophan, arginine, leucine, lysine and valine are essential for viability in culture. Most of the 20 proteogenic amino acids promote growth of Leishmania promastigotes, with the exception of alanine, asparagine, and glycine. This defined medium will be useful for further studies of promastigote substrate requirements, and will facilitate future proteomic and metabolomic analyses.

Phenotypic characterization of a glucose transporter null mutant in Leishmania mexicana

Glucose is a major source of energy and carbon in promastigotes of Leishmania mexicana, and its uptake is mediated by three glucose transporters whose genes are encoded within a single cluster. A null mutant in which the glucose transporter gene cluster was deleted by homologous gene replacement was generated previously and shown to grow more slowly than wild type promastigotes but not to be viable as amastigotes in primary tissue culture macrophages or in axenic culture. Further phenotypic characterization demonstrates that the null mutant is unable to import glucose, mannose, fructose, or galactose and that each of the three glucose transporter isoforms, LmGT1, LmGT2, and LmGT3, is capable of transporting each of these hexoses. Complementation of the null mutant with each isoform is able to restore growth in each of the four hexoses to wild type levels. Null mutant promastigotes are reduced in size to about 2/3 the volume of wild type parasites. In addition, the null mutants are significantly more sensitive to oxidative stress than their wild type counterparts. These results underscore the importance of glucose transporters in the parasite life cycle and suggest reasons for their non-viability in the disease-causing amastigote stage.

Molecular biology and regulation of nucleoside and nucleobase transporter proteins in eukaryotes and prokaryotes

The molecular cloning of cDNAs encoding nucleoside transporter proteins has greatly advanced understanding of how nucleoside permeants are translocated across cell membranes. The nucleoside transporter proteins identified thus far have been categorized into five distinct superfamilies. Two of these superfamilies, the equilibrative and concentrative nucleoside transporters, have human members and these will be examined in depth in this review. The human equilibrative nucleoside transporters translocate nucleosides and nucleobases bidirectionally down their concentration gradients and are important in the uptake of anticancer and antiviral nucleoside drugs. The human concentrative nucleoside transporters cotranslocate nucleosides and sodium unidirectionally against the nucleoside concentration gradients and play a vital role in certain tissues. The regulation of nucleoside and nucleobase transporters is being studied more intensely now that more tools are available. This review provides an overview of recent advances in the molecular biology and regulation of the nucleoside and nucleobase transporters.

Choline transport in Leishmania major promastigotes and its inhibition by choline and phosphocholine analogs

Phosphatidylcholine is the most abundant phospholipid in the membranes of the human parasite Leishmania. The metabolic pathways leading to its biosynthesis are likely to play a critical role in parasite development and survival and may offer a good target for antileishmanial chemotherapy. Phosphatidylcholine synthesis via the CDP-choline pathway requires transport of the choline precursor from the host. Here, we report the first characterization of choline transport in this parasite, which is carrier-mediated and exhibits Michaelis-Menten kinetics with an apparent K(m) value of 2.5 microM for choline. This process is Na(+)-independent and requires an intact proton gradient to be fully functional. Choline transport into Leishmania is highly specific for choline and is inhibited by the choline carrier inhibitor hemicholinium-3, the channel blocker quinacrine, the antimalarial aminoquinolines quinine and quinidine, the antileishmanial phosphocholine analogs, miltefosine and edelfosine, and by choline analogs, most of which have antimalarial activities. Most importantly, choline analogs kill the promastigote form of the parasite in vitro in the low micromolar range. These results set the stage for the use of choline analogs in antileishmanial chemotherapy and shed new lights on the mechanism of action of the leishmanicidal phosphocholine analogs.

Secretory pathway of trypanosomatid parasites

The Trypanosomatidae comprise a large group of parasitic protozoa, some of which cause important diseases in humans. These include Trypanosoma brucei (the causative agent of African sleeping sickness and nagana in cattle), Trypanosoma cruzi (the causative agent of Chagas' disease in Central and South America), and Leishmania spp. (the causative agent of visceral and [muco]cutaneous leishmaniasis throughout the tropics and subtropics). The cell surfaces of these parasites are covered in complex protein- or carbohydrate-rich coats that are required for parasite survival and infectivity in their respective insect vectors and mammalian hosts. These molecules are assembled in the secretory pathway. Recent advances in the genetic manipulation of these parasites as well as progress with the parasite genome projects has greatly advanced our understanding of processes that underlie secretory transport in trypanosomatids. This article provides an overview of the organization of the trypanosomatid secretory pathway and connections that exist with endocytic organelles and multiple lytic and storage vacuoles. A number of the molecular components that are required for vesicular transport have been identified, as have some of the sorting signals that direct proteins to the cell surface or organelles in the endosome-vacuole system. Finally, the subcellular organization of the major glycosylation pathways in these parasites is reviewed. Studies on these highly divergent eukaryotes provide important insights into the molecular processes underlying secretory transport that arose very early in eukaryotic evolution. They also reveal unusual or novel aspects of secretory transport and protein glycosylation that may be exploited in developing new antiparasite drugs.