Priority, invisibility and eradication: the history of smallpox and the Brazilian public health agenda

Navigating resistance in global health governance: Certification of smallpox eradication in China

Certification is an essential stage in disease eradication efforts, encompassing epidemiological, managerial, and political complexities. The certification of smallpox eradication in the People's Republic of China (PRC, or China) exemplifies the multifaceted nature of the certification. Despite eradicating smallpox in the early 1960s, before the Global Smallpox Eradication Programme (SEP) intensified in 1967, China was one of the last countries certified as smallpox-free by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1979. The WHO encountered notable resistance during the certification of smallpox eradication in China. This article examines the underlying motivations propelling China's resistance, the factors that contributed to the shifts in its stance, the challenges navigated by the WHO, and the ultimate achievement of certification despite controversies surrounding its transparency and credibility. Through the case of the certification of smallpox eradication, the article provides a historical context of China's selective engagement in global health governance, emphasising the critical importance of building a trusting relationship between the WHO and its member states. It offers insights for fostering effective collaboration among diverse stakeholders driven by varied political agendas in addressing shared global health challenges such as the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic.

Vaccine and smallpox vaccination in nineteenth century Bahia

Abstract This article aims to discuss the perceptions and actions of public authorities regarding the process of introduction, production, conservation, distribution, and application of the smallpox vaccine; the emergence of institutions associated with the vaccine and vaccination; and its main obstacles in Bahia in the nineteenth century. The article emphasizes the local and regional dynamics of this process. It addresses the problem of smallpox in colonial Bahia, the arrival of the Jennerian vaccine, the diffusion of the vaccination method, the establishment of health institutions, and the disease control measures implemented as of 1808. In the context of the post-independence and Imperial Brazil, this article addresses smallpox outbreaks and discusses the problems related to vaccine and vaccination listed by the governors of the province of Bahia and local efforts to introduce the animal vaccine. This article is based on printed primary sources published in Bahia in the nineteenth century, as well as through dialogues with specialized literature.

Vaccine and smallpox vaccination in nineteenth century Bahia

This article aims to discuss the perceptions and actions of public authorities regarding the process of introduction, production, conservation, distribution, and application of the smallpox vaccine; the emergence of institutions associated with the vaccine and vaccination; and its main obstacles in Bahia in the nineteenth century. The article emphasizes the local and regional dynamics of this process. It addresses the problem of smallpox in colonial Bahia, the arrival of the Jennerian vaccine, the diffusion of the vaccination method, the establishment of health institutions, and the disease control measures implemented as of 1808. In the context of the post-independence and Imperial Brazil, this article addresses smallpox outbreaks and discusses the problems related to vaccine and vaccination listed by the governors of the province of Bahia and local efforts to introduce the animal vaccine. This article is based on printed primary sources published in Bahia in the nineteenth century, as well as through dialogues with specialized literature.

Ethical reflections on Covid-19 vaccines

OBJECTIVES

More than 1 year after the start of the Covid-19 pandemic it is becoming increasingly clear that vaccines will prove to be essential in combating this global pandemic. The demand for such vaccines is great (since nearly everyone is a candidate for vaccination) yet supplies are currently limited. This raises clear ethical questions regarding the current and future Covid-19 vaccines.

METHODS

In this paper we highlight the several ethical questions that are raised using a three-fold categorization. We will discuss questions concerning: (1) the design and testing of vaccines; (2) who gets the vaccines; and (3) the tensions between public health and individual interest/autonomy. Each of these three more broad categories encompasses many different and concrete ethical questions.

RESULTS

We argue that different ethical frameworks apply both across these three categories, but also within these categories.

CONCLUSION

Despite the fact that ethical conflict might not completely disappear, we argue that distinguishing and discussing separate questions from an ethical perspective can help create the necessary clarity and provide an ethical justification in favour of particular vaccination issues.

Re-assessing the Foundations: Worldwide Smallpox Eradication, 1957-67

An expansive, worldwide smallpox eradication programme (SEP) was announced by the World Health Assembly in 1958, leading this decision-making body to instruct the World Health Organization Headquarters in Geneva to work with WHO regional offices to engage and draw in national governments to ensure success. Tabled by the Soviet Union's representative and passed by a majority vote by member states, the announcement was subject to intense diplomatic negotiations. This led to the formation, expansion and reshaping of an ambitious and complex campaign that cut across continents and countries. This article examines these inter-twining international, regional and national processes, and challenges long-standing historiographical assumptions about the fight against smallpox only gathering strength from the mid-1960s onwards, after the start of a US-supported programme in western Africa. The evidence presented here suggests a far more complex picture. It shows that although the SEP's structures grew slowly between 1958 and 1967, a worldwide eradication programme resulted from international negotiations made possible through gains during this period. Significant progress in limiting the incidence of smallpox sustained international collaboration, and justified the prolongation and expansion of activities. Indeed, all of this bore diplomatic and legal processes within the World Health Assembly and WHO that acted as the foundation of the so-called intensified phase of the SEP and the multi-faceted activities that led to the certification of smallpox eradication in 1980.

Chronicle of a consolidated success: smallpox eradication policies in Brazil (1962-1973)

The aim of this article is to understand actions taken towards smallpox eradication in Brazil, in the framework of the Smallpox Eradication campaign that took place in the 1960s and 1970s. The article argues that, in addition to the bifurcated needle and the lyophilized vaccine, epidemiological surveillance - based on the construction of instruments and protocols for health surveillance - was the third key element that guaranteed the eradication of the disease. The hypothesis is that the actions taken towards the control and eradication of smallpox contributed to the construction of new health institutions within Brazil. As an exercise of socio-historical analysis, this research was based on documentary sources (reports, newsletters and legislation), interviews with professionals directly involved in the eradication of smallpox, and part of the intellectual production on the subject.

Revisiting Jenner's mysteries, the role of the Beaugency lymph in the evolutionary path of ancient smallpox vaccines

In 1796, Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine consisting of pustular material obtained from lesions on cows affected by so-called cow-pox. The disease, caused by cowpox virus, confers crossprotection against smallpox. However, historical evidence suggests that Jenner might have used vaccinia virus or even horsepox virus instead of cowpox virus. Mysteries surrounding the origin and nature of the smallpox vaccine persisted during the 19th century, a period of intense exchange of vaccine strains, including the Beaugency lymph. This lymph was obtained from spontaneous cases of cow-pox in France in 1866 and then distributed worldwide. A detailed Historical Review of the distribution of the Beaugency lymph supports recent genetic analyses of extant vaccine strains, suggesting the lymph was probably a vaccinia strain or a horsepox-like virus. This Review is a historical investigation that revisits the mysteries of the smallpox vaccine and reveals an intricate evolutionary relationship of extant vaccinia strains.

Genomic Analysis, Phenotype, and Virulence of the Historical Brazilian Smallpox Vaccine Strain IOC: Implications for the Origins and Evolutionary Relationships of Vaccinia Virus

Smallpox was declared eradicated in 1980 after an intensive vaccination program using different strains of vaccinia virus (VACV; Poxviridae). VACV strain IOC (VACV-IOC) was the seed strain of the smallpox vaccine manufactured by the major vaccine producer in Brazil during the smallpox eradication program. However, little is known about the biological and immunological features as well as the phylogenetic relationships of this first-generation vaccine. In this work, we present a comprehensive characterization of two clones of VACV-IOC. Both clones had low virulence in infected mice and induced a protective immune response against a lethal infection comparable to the response of the licensed vaccine ACAM2000 and the parental strain VACV-IOC. Full-genome sequencing revealed the presence of several fragmented virulence genes that probably are nonfunctional, e.g., F1L, B13R, C10L, K3L, and C3L. Most notably, phylogenetic inference supported by the structural analysis of the genome ends provides evidence of a novel, independent cluster in VACV phylogeny formed by VACV-IOC, the Brazilian field strains Cantagalo (CTGV) and Serro 2 viruses, and horsepox virus, a VACV-like virus supposedly related to an ancestor of the VACV lineage. Our data strongly support the hypothesis that CTGV-like viruses represent feral VACV that evolved in parallel with VACV-IOC after splitting from a most recent common ancestor, probably an ancient smallpox vaccine strain related to horsepox virus. Our data, together with an interesting historical investigation, revisit the origins of VACV and propose new evolutionary relationships between ancient and extant VACV strains, mainly horsepox virus, VACV-IOC/CTGV-like viruses, and Dryvax strain.

IMPORTANCE

First-generation vaccines used to eradicate smallpox had rates of adverse effects that are not acceptable by current health care standards. Moreover, these vaccines are genetically heterogeneous and consist of a pool of quasispecies of VACV. Therefore, the search for new-generation smallpox vaccines that combine low pathogenicity, immune protection, and genetic homogeneity is extremely important. In addition, the phylogenetic relationships and origins of VACV strains are quite nebulous. We show the characterization of two clones of VACV-IOC, a unique smallpox vaccine strain that contributed to smallpox eradication in Brazil. The immunogenicity and reduced virulence make the IOC clones good options for alternative second-generation smallpox vaccines. More importantly, this study reveals the phylogenetic relationship between VACV-IOC, feral VACV established in nature, and the ancestor-like horsepox virus. Our data expand the discussion on the origins and evolutionary connections of VACV lineages.

[The "culture of survival" and international public health in Latin America: the Cold War and the eradication of diseases in the mid-twentieth century]

This article analyzes the main campaigns run by international agencies and national health bodies to eradicate infectious diseases in rural Latin America in the 1940s and 1950s. The political dimensions of the period have been studied but there has been little attention as yet to the health dimensions. This article proposes the concept of a "culture of survival" to explain the official public health problems of states with limited social policies that did not allow the exercise of citizenship. Public health, as part of this culture of survival, sought a temporary solution without confronting the social problems that led to infections and left a public health legacy in the region.

[Smallpox in São Paulo (SP, Brazil): history of admissions at the Institute of Infectious Diseases Emilio Ribas between 1898 and 1970]

The objective of this article is to describe the admissions for smallpox at the Institute of Infectious Diseases Emilio Ribas, during the period from 1898 to 1970, showing the origin of the patients' residence in the metropolitan region of São Paulo. It is a descriptive study which used secondary data collected from the record books for admissions at the Institute during the period of 1898 to 1970. The hospital records were counted and grouped into periods of 10 years. The total amount of admissions were 11,393. From the total of 533 deaths, 251 of the patients were female, 280 male and two unknown. These patients resided in 139 different locations. The city of São Paulo contributed with 7915 or 69.5% of the total, followed by Santo André, Mogi das Cruzes, Guarulhos, São Caetano do Sul, Osasco and Suzano. It was seen 237 patients in transit. For 994 admissions the municipality of origin was ignored, despite indications in the records.

Vacinação, varíola e uma cultura da imunização no Brasil

O objetivo deste artigo é discutir a emergência e o estabelecimento de uma "cultura da imunização" no Brasil contemporâneo a partir da erradicação da varíola. Essa cultura está associada a um longo processo de introdução de vacinas, de campanhas de vacinação e de vacinação em massa empreendidas pelo Estado brasileiro desde o final do século XIX. Particular importância é atribuída à campanha de erradicação da varíola no Brasil (1966-1973). A experiência da vacinação em massa da população contra a varíola é contrastada com episódios de resistência como a "Revolta da Vacina", e considerada como crucial na configuração de novas políticas e novas compreensões sobre o papel da imunização na saúde pública e seu lugar na sociedade brasileira.

["Brazil isn't only disease": Juscelino Kubitschek's public health program]

Analyzes the public health program that Juscelino Kubitschek presented while running for president and its dialogue with interpretations that identified Brazil as an ailing country that should be recovered through public medicine. The proposals and goals contained in Kubitschek's healthcare program, as released during his 1955 campaign, serve as the main sources for this analysis. They also were key to establishing this dialogue, which was both prompted and shaped by a national and international context characterized by the post-war idea of development and public health optimism. Within the context of his development project, the article looks at how Kubitschek elaborated the themes of the centrality of rural endemic disease and the abandonment of the rural worker, both dear to the sanitary movement in the 1910s. It also underscores how Kubitschek the candidate endeavored to link health and development within this arena of government policy.