1
|
Hubálek Z. Pathogenic microorganisms associated with gulls and terns (Laridae). JOURNAL OF VERTEBRATE BIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.25225/jvb.21009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zdeněk Hubálek
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic; e-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Rogers KH, Viera OG, Uzal FA, Peronne L, Mete A. Mortality of Western Gulls (Larus occidentalis) Associated with Botulism Type a in Coastal Southern California, USA. J Wildl Dis 2021; 57:657-661. [PMID: 33956128 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-20-00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A mortality event involving at least 14 Western Gulls (Larus occidentalis) was observed on 10 October 2019 on Huntington State Beach, Orange County, California, US. Clinical signs of affected gulls included generalized weakness and difficulty standing and flying. Six additional Western Gulls with similar clinical signs were admitted for rehabilitation between 24 October and 7 November, including birds from Newport Beach and Laguna Beach, south of Huntington Beach. Eleven carcasses were submitted for postmortem examination, including nine gulls collected on 10 October from Huntington Beach, one collected on 24 October from Laguna Beach, and one collected on 6 November from Newport Beach. Six of seven gulls tested were positive for Clostridium botulinum toxin type A by mouse bioassay, including five collected on 10 October from Huntington Beach and one from Laguna Beach, approximately 23 km south, on 24 October, suggesting the toxin was available to scavenging birds for nearly 2 wk following the original exposure. Botulism type C, and less commonly type E, are most frequently documented in wild birds, including waterfowl and fish-eating birds, respectively. In contrast, botulism type A is the most common cause of foodborne botulism in humans, acquired from food contaminated with C. botulinum spores, but it has not previously been associated with mortality in free-ranging wild birds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Krysta H Rogers
- Wildlife Investigations Laboratory, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1701 Nimbus Road, Suite D, Rancho Cordova, California 95670, USA
| | - Omar Gonzales Viera
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, 620 W Health Sciences Drive, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, 105 W Central Avenue, San Bernardino, California 92408, USA
| | - Lisa Peronne
- Wetlands and Wildlife Care Center, 21900 Pacific Coast Highway, Huntington Beach, California 92646, USA
| | - Aslı Mete
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, 620 W Health Sciences Drive, Davis, California 95616, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tongue ADW, Reynolds SJ, Fernie KJ, Harrad S. Flame retardant concentrations and profiles in wild birds associated with landfill: A critical review. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 248:646-658. [PMID: 30844700 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.01.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Given factors such as their persistence and toxicity, legacy brominated flame retardants (BFRs) like polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), are designated as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and are subject to regulation. Waste streams likely represent a substantial reservoir of legacy BFRs given that they were once widely applied to goods which are increasingly likely to be obsolete. Waste streams are also increasingly likely to be a source of emerging flame retardants, in particular, novel BFRs (NBFRs), the halogenated norbornene flame retardant Dechlorane Plus (DDC-CO) and the brominated, chlorinated or non-halogenated organophosphate triester flame retardants (PFRs). Many bird populations rely on landfill and its surrounding land-use for inter alia the opportunities it provides for activities such as foraging and resting. However, studies on captive and wild (free-living) birds have demonstrated deleterious effects of several FRs. Globally, approximately 250 bird species, including many of conservation concern, are reported to use landfill and surrounding habitat (including wastewater treatment operations), thus putting birds potentially at risk of exposure to such chemicals. We synthesise and critically evaluate a total of 18 studies covering eight avian species published between 2008 and 2018 (inclusive) across four continents that report flame retardant (FR) burdens in birds utilising landfill. Several such studies found FRs at among the highest concentrations detected in wild biota to date. We recommend that ongoing research be focused on landfill-associated birds, given that landfill is an important source of FRs and other anthropogenic chemicals, and particularly at sites where species are of conservation concern. We suggest ways in which the comparative power of studies could be enhanced in the future, the reporting of a minimum common suite of key chemicals, and where feasible, standardisation of the tissue compartments (i.e., eggs) to be studied. We conclude by identifying future research directions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D W Tongue
- Centre for Ornithology, School of Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK; School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - S James Reynolds
- Centre for Ornithology, School of Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK; The Army Ornithological Society (AOS), c/o Prince Consort Library, Knollys Road, Aldershot, Hampshire, GU11 1PS, UK
| | - Kim J Fernie
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK; Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Division, Wildlife and Landscape Science Directorate, Environment & Climate Change Canada (ECCC), Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tauler-Ametlller H, Pretus JL, Hernández-Matías A, Ortiz-Santaliestra ME, Mateo R, Real J. Domestic waste disposal sites secure food availability but diminish plasma antioxidants in Egyptian vulture. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 650:1382-1391. [PMID: 30308825 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Some domestic waste disposal sites (DWDS) accumulate enormous amounts of food that humans discard. This food resource is exploited by different species whose population dynamics have as a result been altered. The effects of feeding on human waste on individual health parameters such as body condition are still unknown. Traditionally, body condition in wildlife has been assessed using morphological indices based on size and weight. Expanding the range of indices to include the analysis of indicators at the physiological level can provide a more comprehensive picture of the animals' health status. In this work, we studied how different amounts of waste consumption (assessed using stable isotope analysis) affect nestling health and body condition in an expanding population of the endangered Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus). We used morphometric and physiological approaches, including plasma biochemistry, antioxidant defences and oxidative stress biomarkers. The results of the multivariate redundancy analysis and variance partitioning showed that the proportion of diet originating from DWDS is the main factor explaining physiological indicators in the studied vulture population. Nestlings that were fed on food from DWDS had lower levels of vitamins (e.g. α-tocopherol) and carotenoids (zeaxanthin and lutein), which have important functions as antioxidant defences, immunostimulant properties and ornamental purposes. Nevertheless, nestlings that were fed on food from DWDS were better nourished and experienced fewer food shortages than individuals not fed using this resource, which had lower levels of cholesterol. Possibly due to the easy access to food, breeding pairs using DWDS could have fewer difficulties in feeding their nestlings and thus could engender more regular brood sizes than those not exploiting this type of resource. Our integrative approach using diverse components was crucial for a reliable assessment of health and body condition in Egyptian Vulture nestlings and its relationship to the consumption of food derived from human-altered environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helena Tauler-Ametlller
- Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Institut de la Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBIO), Universitat de Barcelona, Avd. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain; Equip de Biologia de la Conservació, Universitat de Barcelona, Avd. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain.
| | - Joan Ll Pretus
- Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Institut de la Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBIO), Universitat de Barcelona, Avd. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Antonio Hernández-Matías
- Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Institut de la Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBIO), Universitat de Barcelona, Avd. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain; Equip de Biologia de la Conservació, Universitat de Barcelona, Avd. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain; Departament de Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat de Girona, Campus Montilivi, 17003 Girona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Manuel E Ortiz-Santaliestra
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), Ronda de Toledo 12, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Rafael Mateo
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), Ronda de Toledo 12, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Joan Real
- Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Institut de la Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBIO), Universitat de Barcelona, Avd. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain; Equip de Biologia de la Conservació, Universitat de Barcelona, Avd. Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chellapandi P, Prisilla A. PCR-based molecular diagnosis of botulism (types C and D) outbreaks in aquatic birds. ANN MICROBIOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s13213-018-1390-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
|
6
|
Plaza PI, Lambertucci SA. How are garbage dumps impacting vertebrate demography, health, and conservation? Glob Ecol Conserv 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2017.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
|
7
|
Skarin H, Lindgren Y, Jansson DS. Investigations into an Outbreak of Botulism Caused by Clostridium botulinum Type C/D in Laying Hens. Avian Dis 2015; 59:335-40. [PMID: 26473687 DOI: 10.1637/10861-051214-case] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
This case report describes a recent botulism outbreak in commercial laying hens with a history of increased mortality and flaccid paralysis. Routine diagnostic gross examination and microscopy from seven hens were inconclusive, but botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) in peripheral blood was neutralized with both type C and type D antitoxins in the mouse bioassay. During a farm visit, 10 additional hens from a 34-wk-old flock on the farm were selected for clinical examination and further sampling. Nine hens were observed in sternal recumbency, with flaccid paralysis of the neck, drooping wings and tail, inability to escape, and bilateral ptosis, and one hen showed nonspecific clinical signs. Samples from cecum and liver were collected, and the gene coding for BoNT was detected by PCR in all 10 cecal samples and in four of the liver samples. Clostridium botulinum mosaic type C/D was isolated from 5 out of 10 hens from either cecum or liver, and the isolates were subjected to pulsed-field gel electrophoresis subtyping. All five isolates produced the same banding pattern, which was identical or showed >90% similarity to isolates from three different outbreaks on broiler farms in Sweden and Denmark during the 2007-10 period. However, they were clearly distinguishable from the predominantly reported pulsotype associated with avian botulism outbreaks in Europe. The authors are unaware of any previous report of C. botulinum mosaic type C/D isolates from laying hens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Skarin
- A Department of Bacteriology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden.,B Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ylva Lindgren
- C Department of Animal Health and Antimicrobial Strategies, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-75189 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Désirée S Jansson
- C Department of Animal Health and Antimicrobial Strategies, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-75189 Uppsala, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Lawson B, Duff JP, Beckmann KM, Chantrey J, Peck KM, Irvine RM, Robinson RA, Cunningham AA. Drowning is an apparent and unexpected recurrent cause of mass mortality of Common starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Sci Rep 2015; 5:17020. [PMID: 26601771 PMCID: PMC4658497 DOI: 10.1038/srep17020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Drowning is infrequently reported as a cause of death of wild birds and such incidents typically involve individual, rather than multiple, birds. Over a 21-year period (1993 to 2013 inclusive), we investigated 12 incidents of mortality of multiple (2 - 80+) Common starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in Great Britain that appeared to be due to drowning. More than ten birds were affected in ten of these reported incidents. These incidents always occurred during the spring and early summer months and usually involved juvenile birds. In all cases, circumstantial evidence and post-mortem examinations indicated drowning to be the most likely cause of death with no underlying disease found. A behavioural explanation seems likely, possibly related to the gregarious nature of this species combined with juvenile inexperience in identifying water hazards. A review of data from the ringed bird recovery scheme across Great Britain (1909-2013 inclusive) of both starlings and Common blackbirds (Turdus merula), also a common garden visitor, identified additional suspected drowning incidents, which were significantly more common in the former species, supporting a species predisposition to drowning. For each species there was a marked seasonal peak from April to August. Drowning should be included as a differential diagnosis when investigating incidents of multiple starling mortality, especially of juveniles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Becki Lawson
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
| | - J Paul Duff
- Animal &Plant Health Agency, Penrith, Cumbria, CA11 9RR, UK
| | - Katie M Beckmann
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
| | - Julian Chantrey
- University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus Neston, South Wirral CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Kirsi M Peck
- Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire, SG19 2DL, UK
| | - Richard M Irvine
- Animal &Plant Health Agency (APHA), APHA Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Robert A Robinson
- British Trust for Ornithology, The Nunnery, Thetford, Norfolk, IP24 2PU, UK
| | - Andrew A Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Eutrophication and bacterial pathogens as risk factors for avian botulism outbreaks in wetlands receiving effluents from urban wastewater treatment plants. Appl Environ Microbiol 2014; 80:4251-9. [PMID: 24795377 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00949-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the scarcity of water resources in the "Mancha Húmeda" Biosphere Reserve, the use of treated wastewater has been proposed as a solution for the conservation of natural threatened floodplain wetlands. In addition, wastewater treatment plants of many villages pour their effluent into nearby natural lakes. We hypothesized that certain avian pathogens present in wastewater may cause avian mortalities which would trigger avian botulism outbreaks. With the aim of testing our hypothesis, 24 locations distributed in three wetlands, two that receive wastewater effluents and one serving as a control, were monitored during a year. Sediment, water, water bird feces, and invertebrates were collected for the detection of putative avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC), Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens type A, and Clostridium botulinum type C/D. Also, water and sediment physicochemical properties were determined. Overall, APEC, C. perfringens, and C. botulinum were significantly more prevalent in samples belonging to the wetlands which receive wastewater. The occurrence of a botulism outbreak in one of the studied wetlands coincided with high water temperatures and sediment 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), a decrease in water redox potential, chlorophyll a, and sulfate levels, and an increase in water inorganic carbon levels. The presence of C. botulinum in bird feces before the onset of the outbreak indicates that carrier birds exist and highlights the risk of botulinum toxin production in their carcasses if they die by other causes such as bacterial diseases, which are more probable in wastewater wetlands.
Collapse
|
10
|
Morley N, Lewis J. Extreme climatic events and host–pathogen interactions: The impact of the 1976 drought in the UK. ECOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecocom.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
11
|
Overington SE, Griffin AS, Sol D, Lefebvre L. Are innovative species ecological generalists? A test in North American birds. Behav Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arr130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
12
|
Benskin CMH, Wilson K, Jones K, Hartley IR. Bacterial pathogens in wild birds: a review of the frequency and effects of infection. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2009; 84:349-73. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185x.2008.00076.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
13
|
Use of Lethal Control to Reduce Habituation to Blank Rounds by Scavenging Birds. J Wildl Manage 2008. [DOI: 10.2193/2007-458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
14
|
|
15
|
Kim SY, Monaghan P. Interspecific differences in foraging preferences, breeding performance and demography in herring (Larus argentatus) and lesser black-backed gulls (Larus fuscus) at a mixed colony. J Zool (1987) 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00155.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
16
|
|
17
|
Jones DL, Williamson KL, Owen AG. Phytoremediation of landfill leachate. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2006; 26:825-37. [PMID: 16168631 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2005.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2004] [Revised: 04/07/2005] [Accepted: 06/28/2005] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Leachate emissions from landfill sites are of concern, primarily due to their toxic impact when released unchecked into the environment, and the potential for landfill sites to generate leachate for many hundreds of years following closure. Consequently, economically and environmentally sustainable disposal options are a priority in waste management. One potential option is the use of soil-plant based remediation schemes. In many cases, using either trees (including short rotation coppice) or grassland, phytoremediation of leachate has been successful. However, there are a significant number of examples where phytoremediation has failed. Typically, this failure can be ascribed to excessive leachate application and poor management due to a fundamental lack of understanding of the plant-soil system. On balance, with careful management, phytoremediation can be viewed as a sustainable, cost effective and environmentally sound option which is capable of treating 250m(3)ha(-1)yr(-1). However, these schemes have a requirement for large land areas and must be capable of responding to changes in leachate quality and quantity, problems of scheme establishment and maintenance, continual environmental monitoring and seasonal patterns of plant growth. Although the fundamental underpinning science is well understood, further work is required to create long-term predictive remediation models, full environmental impact assessments, a complete life-cycle analysis and economic analyses for a wide range of landfill scenarios.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D L Jones
- School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, Wales, UK.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
|
19
|
Böhnel H, Lube K. Clostridium botulinum and bio-compost. A contribution to the analysis of potential health hazards caused by bio-waste recycling. JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. B, INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH 2000; 47:785-95. [PMID: 11204133 DOI: 10.1046/j.1439-0450.2000.00426.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Bio-waste recycling and the production and use of bio-compost are politically encouraged in Europe. Quality control takes no consideration of pathogenic anaerobic spore formers, e.g. Clostridium botulinum. A protocol for health hazard analysis concerning this pathogen has been developed. Samples of marketed bio-compost were tested and results showed that about 50% of the tested samples contained C. botulinum. For the first time it has been shown that the use of bio-compost represents a health hazard to humans and animals, especially in the future when spores will have accumulated in the environment. The use of household bio-waste collected in 'bio-bins' is apparently one factor involved in the production of contaminated compost end-products. Environmental factors in the propagation of C. botulinum are discussed. The improvement of bio-waste recycling technology and management should be encouraged in order to minimize the health hazard caused by contaminated bio-compost.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Böhnel
- Institutes for Applied Biotechnology in the Tropics and for Tropical Animal Health, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Description of a Botulism Type C Outbreak among Waterbirds in the Province of La Pampa, Argentina. Anaerobe 1999. [DOI: 10.1006/anae.1999.0216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|