Do farming conditions influence brominated flame retardant levels in pig and poultry products?

Comparison of Food Safety Hazards in Pigs and Broilers from Intensive and Extensive Production Systems: A Literature Review

Consumer demand for meat from extensive production (e.g., organic, free-range, and antimicrobial-free) is increasing, partly due to consumers' perception that these types are safer than conventional meats. This review compared food safety hazards (namely, zoonotic parasites, bacterial pathogens, antimicrobial resistance, and chemical hazards) from pigs and broilers raised in intensive and extensive systems in Northern and Western European countries and the United States. Our findings showed that hazard occurrence between livestock production systems varied depending on the hazard. Pigs and broilers from extensive systems showed a higher prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii. Pathogen prevalence in pigs did not appear to be affected by production systems, while no clear conclusion could be drawn for broilers due to conflicting findings. Higher antimicrobial resistance (AMR) prevalence was common in pig and broiler samples from intensive farming, although samples from extensive farming were not free of AMR either. Studies on chemical hazards were limited, showing generally low contaminant levels in both production systems, including persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, and antimicrobial residues. Therefore, more studies on chemical hazards are recommended to fill this data gap. Various factors associated with specific production systems could influence hazard prevalence, e.g., indoor confinement, outdoor access, antimicrobial policy, and slaughtering age. Regardless of the production system, other factors, such as seasonal variation and biosecurity levels, were also important.

EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM), Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Grasl‐Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, (Ron) Hoogenboom L, Leblanc J, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Wallace H, Benford D, Fürst P, Hart A, Rose M, Schroeder H, Vrijheid M, Ioannidou S, Nikolič M, Bordajandi LR, Vleminckx C. Update of the risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in food

The European Commission asked EFSA to update its 2011 risk assessment on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in food, focusing on 10 congeners: BDE-28, -47, -49, -99, -100, -138, -153, -154, -183 and ‑209. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the neurodevelopmental effects on behaviour and reproductive/developmental effects are the critical effects in rodent studies. For four congeners (BDE-47, -99, -153, -209) the Panel derived Reference Points, i.e. benchmark doses and corresponding lower 95% confidence limits (BMDLs), for endpoint-specific benchmark responses. Since repeated exposure to PBDEs results in accumulation of these chemicals in the body, the Panel estimated the body burden at the BMDL in rodents, and the chronic intake that would lead to the same body burden in humans. For the remaining six congeners no studies were available to identify Reference Points. The Panel concluded that there is scientific basis for inclusion of all 10 congeners in a common assessment group and performed a combined risk assessment. The Panel concluded that the combined margin of exposure (MOET) approach was the most appropriate risk metric and applied a tiered approach to the risk characterisation. Over 84,000 analytical results for the 10 congeners in food were used to estimate the exposure across dietary surveys and age groups of the European population. The most important contributors to the chronic dietary Lower Bound exposure to PBDEs were meat and meat products and fish and seafood. Taking into account the uncertainties affecting the assessment, the Panel concluded that it is likely that current dietary exposure to PBDEs in the European population raises a health concern.

Occurrence of some legacy and emerging contaminants in feed and food and their ranking priorities for human exposure

The "feed-to-food" pathway is one of the most important routes for human exposure to manmade contaminants. The contaminants could threaten human health through the "feed-to-food" route and have recently become of great public concern. This review selects the representative legacy and emerging contaminants (ECs), such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs), organophosphate esters (OPEs), short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), regarding their occurrence in feed and food, as well as their metabolites and transport in farming and livestock ecosystems. Factors that might influence their presence and behavior are discussed. This review raises an approach to rank the priority of ECs using the EC concentrations in feed and food and using the hazard quotient (HQ) method for human health. Although SCCPs have the highest levels in feed and food, their potential risks appear to be the lowest. PFASs have the highest HQs on account of human exposure risk. Future research should pay more attention to the combined effects of multiple ECs.

Bromine in chicken eggs, feed, and water from different regions of Ukraine

The purpose of these studies was to analyse and compare the content of bromine in samples of chicken eggs, feed, and water from different regions of Ukraine in the dynamics of 2016 – 2020: with an increased risk of bromine in products (Kharkiv, Poltava, Dnipropetrovsk and Mykolaiv regions) and outside the risk zone (Volyn, Vinnytsia and Zaporizhzhia). Studies of bromine content in eggs, feed, and water were performed in the laboratory of toxicological monitoring of the National Scientific Center "Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine" (Kharkiv) using X-ray fluorescence analysis. As a result of the conducted researches, the increase of the bromine content in chicken eggs in the dynamics of 2016 – 2020 was established: the bromine content increased regardless of the region of the poultry farm location. The highest bromine concentration in chicken eggs was found in Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk, Mykolaiv, and Zaporizhia regions. Bromine source in poultry products is the excessive intake of bromine in the poultry body with alimentary environmental factors (feed and water). Bromine content in feed for chickens increased in the research dynamics (from 35.1% in the Poltava region to 2.5 times in the Zaporizhzhia region). It exceeded the established EFSA (4.4% of the total) and the average in Ukraine (51.2% of the total number of samples). In addition, the average bromine content in feed from poultry farms of the studied regions of Ukraine correlated with the number of registered and approved bromine-containing pesticides. The average bromine concentration in water sources in the studied regions of Ukraine had no significant differences compared to the beginning of the study but exceeded the maximum allowable concentration by 21.7% in 2016, 34.8% in 2018 and 39.1% in 2020. The maximum bromine concentration was in water sources in Mykolayiv, Kharkiv, and Dnipropetrovsk regions.

Review: Production factors affecting the quality of chicken table eggs and egg products in Europe

The hen's egg (Gallus gallus) is an animal product of great agronomic interest, with a world production of 70.9 million tonnes in 2018. China accounted for 35% of world production, followed by North America (12% of world production), the European Union (7.0 million tonnes, 10% of world production) and India (5.0 million tonnes, 7% of world production). In France, 16-17 billion eggs are produced annually (14.5 billion for table eggs) and more than 1 200 billion worldwide. In 2019, egg production increased by 3.3% compared to 2018, mainly due to the increase in Asian production, which has risen by 42% since 2000. Chicken eggs are widely used either as a low-cost, high nutritional quality food cooked by the consumer (more than 100 billion eggs consumed in Europe), or incorporated as an ingredient in many food products. The various production methods have changed considerably over the last 15 years with the consideration of animal welfare and changes in European regulations. In Europe, fewer and fewer eggs are produced in confinement and there has been a strong growth in the number of systems giving access to an outdoor run. In this review, we describe the different ways in which eggs are produced and processed into egg products to meet the growing demand for ready-to-use food products. We analyse the effect of this evolution of hen-rearing systems on the set of characteristics of eggs and egg products that determine their quality. We describe the risks and benefits associated with these new production methods and their influence or lack of influence on commercial, nutritional, microbial and chemical contamination risk characteristics, as well as the evolution of the image for the consumer. The latter covers the ethical, cultural and environmental dimensions associated with the way the egg is produced.

EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM), Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Grasl‐Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom L(R, Leblanc J, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Wallace H, Benford D, Fürst P, Rose M, Ioannidou S, Nikolič M, Bordajandi LR, Vleminckx C. Update of the risk assessment of hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDDs) in food

The European Commission asked EFSA to update its 2011 risk assessment on hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDDs) in food. HBCDDs, predominantly mixtures of the stereoisomers α-, β- and γ-HBCDD, were widely used additive flame retardants. Concern has been raised because of the occurrence of HBCDDs in the environment, food and in humans. Main targets for toxicity are neurodevelopment, the liver, thyroid hormone homeostasis and the reproductive and immune systems. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the neurodevelopmental effects on behaviour in mice can be considered the critical effects. Based on effects on spontaneous behaviour in mice, the Panel identified a lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) of 0.9 mg/kg body weight (bw) as the Reference Point, corresponding to a body burden of 0.75 mg/kg bw. The chronic intake that would lead to the same body burden in humans was calculated to be 2.35 μg/kg bw per day. The derivation of a health-based guidance value (HBGV) was not considered appropriate. Instead, the margin of exposure (MOE) approach was applied to assess possible health concerns. Over 6,000 analytical results for HBCDDs in food were used to estimate the exposure across dietary surveys and age groups of the European population. The most important contributors to the chronic dietary LB exposure to HBCDDs were fish meat, eggs, livestock meat and poultry. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the resulting MOE values support the conclusion that current dietary exposure to HBCDDs across European countries does not raise a health concern. An exception is breastfed infants with high milk consumption, for which the lowest MOE values may raise a health concern.