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Pisu FA, Ricci PC, Porcu S, Carbonaro CM, Chiriu D. Degradation of CdS Yellow and Orange Pigments: A Preventive Characterization of the Process through Pump-Probe, Reflectance, X-ray Diffraction, and Raman Spectroscopy. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 15:5533. [PMID: 36013670 PMCID: PMC9413883 DOI: 10.3390/ma15165533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Cadmium yellow degradation afflicts numerous paintings realized between the XIXth and XXth centuries. The degradation process and its kinetics is not completely understood. It consists of chalking, lightening, flaking, spalling, and, in its most deteriorated cases, the formation of a crust over the original yellow paint. In order to improve the comprehension of the process, mock-up samples of CdS in yellow and orange tonalities were studied by means of structural analysis and optical characterization, with the principal techniques used in the field of cultural heritage. Mock ups were artificially degraded with heat treatment and UV exposure. Relevant colorimetric variation appears in CIE Lab coordinates from reflectance spectra. XRD, SEM-EDS, and Raman spectroscopy revealed the formation of cadmium sulfate, whilst time-resolved photoluminescence and pump-probe transient absorption spectroscopy suggest the formation of a defective phase, compatible with Cd vacancies and the formation of both CdO and CdSO4 superficial clusters.
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Yu J, Warren WS, Fischer MC. Visualization of vermilion degradation using pump-probe microscopy. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2019; 5:eaaw3136. [PMID: 31245540 PMCID: PMC6588381 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaw3136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Here, we demonstrate the use of pump-probe microscopy for high-resolution studies of vermilion degradation. Vermilion (mostly α-HgS), an important red pigment used in historical paintings, blackens over time, and metallic Hg and β-HgS have been implicated as possible degradation products. Conventional analysis techniques have trouble differentiating α- and β-HgS with sufficiently high spatial resolution. However, pump-probe microscopy can differentiate metallic mercury, α- and β-HgS, and map each distribution on the microscopic scale. We studied artificial degradation of α-HgS; femtosecond-pulsed laser irradiation induces an irreversible phase shift of α- to β-HgS, in which the initial presence of β-HgS grains can increase the rate of conversion in their vicinity. Continuous ultraviolet exposure instead generates both liquid Hg and β-HgS, with a conversion rate that increases with elevated temperatures. Last, we reveal the presence of β-HgS as a natural degradation product in discolored vermilion layers in a 14th century Italian painting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Yu
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Warren S. Warren
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Departments of Radiology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Department of Physics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Martin C. Fischer
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Department of Physics, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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Miliani C, Monico L, Melo MJ, Fantacci S, Angelin EM, Romani A, Janssens K. Zur Photochemie von Künstlerfarben: Strategien zur Verhinderung von Farbveränderungen in Kunstwerken. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201802801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Costanza Miliani
- CNR-Institute of Molecular Science and Technologies (CNR-ISTM); via Elce di Sotto 8 06123 Perugia Italien
| | - Letizia Monico
- CNR-Institute of Molecular Science and Technologies (CNR-ISTM); via Elce di Sotto 8 06123 Perugia Italien
- SMAArt Centre and Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology; University of Perugia; via Elce di Sotto 8 06123 Perugia Italien
- Department of Chemistry; University of Antwerp; Groenenborgerlaan 171 2020 Antwerp Belgien
| | - Maria J. Melo
- Department of Conservation and Restoration LAQV-REQUIMTE; Faculty of Sciences and Technology; NOVA University of Lisbon; 2829-516 Monte da Caparica Portugal
| | - Simona Fantacci
- CNR-Institute of Molecular Science and Technologies (CNR-ISTM); via Elce di Sotto 8 06123 Perugia Italien
| | - Eva M. Angelin
- Department of Conservation and Restoration LAQV-REQUIMTE; Faculty of Sciences and Technology; NOVA University of Lisbon; 2829-516 Monte da Caparica Portugal
| | - Aldo Romani
- CNR-Institute of Molecular Science and Technologies (CNR-ISTM); via Elce di Sotto 8 06123 Perugia Italien
- SMAArt Centre and Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology; University of Perugia; via Elce di Sotto 8 06123 Perugia Italien
| | - Koen Janssens
- Department of Chemistry; University of Antwerp; Groenenborgerlaan 171 2020 Antwerp Belgien
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Miliani C, Monico L, Melo MJ, Fantacci S, Angelin EM, Romani A, Janssens K. Photochemistry of Artists' Dyes and Pigments: Towards Better Understanding and Prevention of Colour Change in Works of Art. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:7324-7334. [PMID: 29696761 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201802801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The absorption of light gives a pigment its colour and its reason for being, but it also creates excited states, that is, new molecules with an energy excess that can be dissipated through degradation pathways. Photodegradation processes provoke long-term, cumulative and irreversible colour changes (fading, darkening, blanching) of which the prediction and prevention are challenging tasks. Of all the environmental risks that affect heritage materials, light exposure is the only one that cannot be controlled without any impact on the optimal display of the exhibit. Light-induced alterations are not only associated with the pigment itself but also with its interactions with support/binder and, in turn, are further complicated by the nature of the environmental conditions. In this Minireview we investigate how chemistry, encompassing multi-scale analytical investigations of works of art, computational modelling and physical and chemical studies contributes to improve our prediction of artwork appearance before degradation and to establish effective preventive conservation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Costanza Miliani
- CNR-Institute of Molecular Science and Technologies (CNR-ISTM), via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123, Perugia, Italy
| | - Letizia Monico
- CNR-Institute of Molecular Science and Technologies (CNR-ISTM), via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123, Perugia, Italy.,SMAArt Centre and Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123, Perugia, Italy.,Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Maria J Melo
- Department of Conservation and Restoration LAQV-REQUIMTE, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, NOVA University of Lisbon, 2829-516 Monte da, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Simona Fantacci
- CNR-Institute of Molecular Science and Technologies (CNR-ISTM), via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123, Perugia, Italy
| | - Eva M Angelin
- Department of Conservation and Restoration LAQV-REQUIMTE, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, NOVA University of Lisbon, 2829-516 Monte da, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Aldo Romani
- CNR-Institute of Molecular Science and Technologies (CNR-ISTM), via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123, Perugia, Italy.,SMAArt Centre and Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123, Perugia, Italy
| | - Koen Janssens
- Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium
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Vermeulen M, Janssens K, Sanyova J, Rahemi V, McGlinchey C, De Wael K. Assessing the stability of arsenic sulfide pigments and influence of the binding media on their degradation by means of spectroscopic and electrochemical techniques. Microchem J 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2018.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Walter P, de Viguerie L. Materials science challenges in paintings. NATURE MATERIALS 2018; 17:106-109. [PMID: 29358768 DOI: 10.1038/nmat5070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Through the paintings of the old masters, we showcase how materials science today provides us with a vision of the processes involved in the creation of a work of art: the choice of materials, the painter's skill in handling these materials, and the perception of the finished work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Walter
- Laboratoire d'archéologie moléculaire et structurale (LAMS), Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Laurence de Viguerie
- Laboratoire d'archéologie moléculaire et structurale (LAMS), Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, Paris, France
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Valentini F, Bicchieri M, Calcaterra A, Talamo M. Raman, X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopies and Graphene Oxide Modified Screen Printed Electrodes to Identify the Pigments and Earth Present in Ancient Leather Samples. ELECTROANAL 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201700457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Valentini
- Chemistry Department Tor Vergata University; via della Ricerca Scientifica 1 00133 Roma Italy
| | - Marina Bicchieri
- Laboratorio di Chimica, Istituto Centrale per il Restauro e la Conservazione del Patrimonio Archivistico e Librario (ICRCPAL); via Milano Roma Italy
| | | | - Maurizio Talamo
- INUIT; Tor Vergata University; Via dell'Archiginnasio Roma Italy
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Liu H, Gao H, Long M, Fu H, Alvarez PJJ, Li Q, Zheng S, Qu X, Zhu D. Sunlight Promotes Fast Release of Hazardous Cadmium from Widely-Used Commercial Cadmium Pigment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:6877-6886. [PMID: 28510419 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Cadmium pigments are widely used in the polymer and ceramic industry. Their potential environmental risk is under debate, being the major barrier for appropriate regulation. We show that 83.0 ± 0.2% of hazardous cadmium ion (Cd2+) was released from the commercial cadmium sulfoselenide pigment (i.e., cadmium red) in aqueous suspension within 24 h under simulated sunlit conditions. This photodissolution process also generated sub-20 nm pigment nanoparticles. Cd2+ release is attributed to the reactions between photogenerated holes and the pigment lattices. The photodissolution process can be activated by both ultraviolet and visible light in the solar spectrum. Irradiation under alkaline conditions or in the presence of phosphate and carbonate species resulted in reduced charge carrier energy or the formation of insoluble and photostable cadmium precipitates on pigment surfaces, mitigating photodissolution. Tannic acid inhibited the photodissolution process by light screening and scavenging photogenerated holes. The fast release of Cd2+ from the pigment was further confirmed in river water under natural sunlight, with 38.6 ± 0.1% of the cadmium released within 4 h. Overall, this study underscores the importance to account for photochemical effects to inform risk assessments and regulations of cadmium pigments which are currently based on their low solubility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiting Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University , Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Han Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University , Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Mingce Long
- School of Environment Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Heyun Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University , Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Pedro J J Alvarez
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University , Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Qilin Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University , Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Shourong Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University , Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Xiaolei Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University , Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Dongqiang Zhu
- School of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University , Beijing 100871, China
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Non-Invasive and Non-Destructive Examination of Artistic Pigments, Paints, and Paintings by Means of X-Ray Methods. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2016; 374:81. [PMID: 27873287 DOI: 10.1007/s41061-016-0079-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies are concisely reviewed, in which X-ray beams of (sub)micrometre to millimetre dimensions have been used for non-destructive analysis and characterization of pigments, minute paint samples, and/or entire paintings from the seventeenth to the early twentieth century painters. The overview presented encompasses the use of laboratory and synchrotron radiation-based instrumentation and deals with the use of several variants of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) as a method of elemental analysis and imaging, as well as with the combined use of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). Microscopic XRF is a variant of the method that is well suited to visualize the elemental distribution of key elements, mostly metals, present in paint multi-layers, on the length scale from 1 to 100 μm inside micro-samples taken from paintings. In the context of the characterization of artists' pigments subjected to natural degradation, the use of methods limited to elemental analysis or imaging usually is not sufficient to elucidate the chemical transformations that have taken place. However, at synchrotron facilities, combinations of μ-XRF with related methods such as μ-XAS and μ-XRD have proven themselves to be very suitable for such studies. Their use is often combined with microscopic Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy and/or Raman microscopy since these methods deliver complementary information of high molecular specificity at more or less the same length scale as the X-ray microprobe techniques. Since microscopic investigation of a relatively limited number of minute paint samples, taken from a given work of art, may not yield representative information about the entire artefact, several methods for macroscopic, non-invasive imaging have recently been developed. Those based on XRF scanning and full-field hyperspectral imaging appear very promising; some recent published results are discussed.
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Ayalew E, Janssens K, De Wael K. Unraveling the Reactivity of Minium toward Bicarbonate and the Role of Lead Oxides Therein. Anal Chem 2016; 88:1564-9. [PMID: 26720157 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b02503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the reactivity of (semiconductor) pigments provides vital information on how to improve conservation strategies for works of art to avoid rapid degradation of the pigments. This study focuses on the photoactivity of minium (Pb3O4), a semiconductor pigment that gives rise to strong discoloration phenomena upon exposure to various environmental conditions. For demonstrating its photoactivity, an electrochemical setup with a minium-modified graphite electrode (C|Pb3O4) was used. It is confirmed that minium is a p-type semiconductor that is photoactive during illumination and becomes inactive in the dark. Raman measurements confirm the formation of degradation products. The photoactivity of a semiconductor pigment is partly defined by the presence of lead oxide (PbO) impurities; these introduce new states in the original band gap. It will be experimentally evidenced that the presence of PbO particles in minium leads to an upward shift of the valence band that reduces the band gap. Thus, upon photoexcitation, the electron/hole separation is more easily initialized. The PbO/Pb3O4 composite electrodes demonstrate a higher reductive photocurrent compared to the photocurrent registered at pure PbO or Pb3O4-modified electrodes. Upon exposure to light with energy close to and above the band gap, electrons are excited from the valence band to the conduction band to initialize the reduction of Pb(IV) to Pb(II), resulting in the initial formation of PbO. However, in the presence of bicarbonate ions, a significantly higher photoreduction current is recorded because the PbO reacts further to form hydrocerussite. Therefore, the presence of bicarbonates in the environment stimulates the photodecomposition process of minium and plays an important role in the degradation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyasu Ayalew
- AXES Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp , Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Koen Janssens
- AXES Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp , Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp , Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium
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Monico L, Janssens K, Cotte M, Sorace L, Vanmeert F, Brunetti BG, Miliani C. Chromium speciation methods and infrared spectroscopy for studying the chemical reactivity of lead chromate-based pigments in oil medium. Microchem J 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2015.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Anaf W, Bencs L, Van Grieken R, Janssens K, De Wael K. Indoor particulate matter in four Belgian heritage sites: case studies on the deposition of dark-colored and hygroscopic particles. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 506-507:361-368. [PMID: 25460971 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Revised: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric total suspended particulate (TSP) was passively sampled by means of deployed horizontal and vertical filters in various rooms of four Belgian cultural heritage buildings, installed with various heating/ventilation systems. Soiling/blackening and deposition of inorganic, water-soluble aerosol components were considered. The extent of soiling was determined by means of two independent methods: (1) in terms of the covering rate of the samplers by optical reflection microscopy and (2) the reduction in lightness of the samplers using the CIE L*a*b* color space by spectrophotometry. A fairly good correlation was found between both methods. The inorganic composition of the deposited water-soluble TSP was quantified by means of ion chromatography. Compared to controlled environments, uncontrolled environments showed increased water-soluble aerosol content of the total deposited mass. Higher chloride deposition was observed on horizontal surfaces, compared to vertical surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willemien Anaf
- AXES Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerpen, Belgium.
| | - László Bencs
- Institute for Solid State Physics and Optics, Wigner Research Centre for Physics, Hungarian Academy of Science, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - René Van Grieken
- AXES Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerpen, Belgium.
| | - Koen Janssens
- AXES Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerpen, Belgium.
| | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerpen, Belgium.
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