Silole-Containing Polymer Nanodot: An Aqueous Low-Potential Electrochemiluminescence Emitter for Biosensing

Low-potential anodic electrochemiluminescence of terbium metal-organic frameworks for selective microRNA-155 detection

High excitation potential is recognized as a harmful factor for the biological activity of biomacromolecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids, in electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensing. Developing low-potential ECL luminophores is vital for improving ECL accuracy in actual sample sensing. In this work, based on porous metal-organic framework (MOF) structure with multiple active sites and energy transfer between the excited ligands and Ln nodes, we designed a series of Ln-MOFs and observed ECL emission at low potential, providing a novel method to realize low-potential ECL. The MOF nanoemitters were prepared using 1,3,5-tri (4-carboxyphenyl)benzene ligand and several lanthanide ions as nodes through mild hydrothermal reaction. Interestingly, strong ECL emission at +0.75 V of peak potential was observed in the ECL-potential curve of Tb-based MOF using 2,2',2″-nitrilotriethanol as coreactant, which was beneficial for reducing background interference in biosensing, and this ECL emission was attributed to the energy transfer between Tb and excited ligand. This low-potential ECL was then applied to construct an ECL biosensor with newly developed Cas12a-based method for selective detection of microRNA-155 without the help of strand displacement or reverse transcription. For this ECL system, the limit of detection was 0.78 nM, and the overall detection time was 2.5 h. The Ln-MOF nanoemitter provides a robust ECL platform to selectively detect various targets by integrating new bio-related techniques.

Aptamer-Triggered Nucleic Acid Amplification Strategy for the Electrochemiluminescence Detection of Perfluorooctanoic Acid

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of persistent micropollutants. Due to their chemical stability and bioaccumulation, concentrations of PFASs in environmental media, even at ultratrace levels, pose significant environmental and health risks. However, currently reported detection methods lack an effective signal amplification strategy, and the detection sensitivity is limited, which can not meet the requirements of ultratrace detection. Herein, a groundbreaking aptamer-recognition-driven nucleic acid strategy was developed to significantly amplify the detection signal of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Furthermore, step pulse (SP) was used instead of cyclic voltammetry (CV) as an electrochemical excitation method to modulate the low electrochemiluminescence (ECL) triggering potential of poly [9,9-bis (3'-(N, N-dimethylamino) propyl) -2,7-fluorene]-alt-2,7-(9,9-dioctylfluorene)] (PFN) nanoparticles (NPs) so that a strong signal of +0.80 V was emitted without any exogenous coreactants. PFN NPs coupled rolling circle amplification-assisted PAM-free CRISPR/Cas12a system to construct an ultrasensitive ECL aptasensor for PFOA detection and the limit of detection was as low as 1.97 × 10-15 M. This ECL system integrated the advantages of no exogenous coreactants, low trigger potential, and nucleic acid amplification strategy and provided an ultrasensitive method for monitoring trace PFOA in the real water sample.

Recent Advances in Luminophores for Enhanced Electrochemiluminescence Analysis

Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) detection is widely applied in many fields, including chemical measurement, biological analysis, and clinic tests, due to its high sensitivity. Currently, the fast development of many new electrochemical luminophores is continuously improving the ECL-based detection ability. Besides the enhancement of luminescence emission for a high detection sensitivity, minimizing the effect of co-reactants on ECL detection and achieving multiple analysis in one sample are also the main directions in this field. This review focuses on a summary of recently prepared new luminophores to achieve the three aims mentioned above. Especially, the review is composed by three parts, focusing on the luminophores or materials with high ECL efficiency, self-enhancing properties, and multi-color ECL luminophores. The fabrication of biosensors using these molecules is also reviewed to exhibit the advances in biological applications.

Aggregation-Induced Enhanced Electrochemiluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer Biosensor for Ultrasensitive Detection of Carcinoembryonic Antigen Based on Donor-Acceptor Organic Nanoparticles

Aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence (AIECL) combines the merits of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) and electrochemiluminescence (ECL), which has become a research hot spot in recent years. Therefore, we synthesized a novel AIE compound (Z)-3-(4-(2-butyl-1,3-dioxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzo[de]isoquinolin-6-yl)phenyl)-2-(4-(1,2,2-triphenylvinyl)phenyl)acrylonitrile (TPENI) with a donor-acceptor (D-A) structure, that is, a simple peripheral modification of 4-(2-butyl-1,3-dioxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzo[de]isoquinolin-6-yl) benzaldehyde (NI-CHO) with AIE-active tetraphenylethylene (TPE) to achieve the transition of NI-CHO from aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) to an AIE molecule. When TPENI was in the aggregated state, the luminescence intensity was significantly enhanced due to the TPE structural unit restricting the free rotation of the intramolecular benzene ring, as well as the π-π stacking interactions of the molecules, which was conducive to the preparation of TPENI NPs as ECL materials. Satisfactorily, we found that the ECL intensity of TPENI NPs was increased by about 4.8-fold compared with that of the molecules dispersed in organic solution, and the stability reached about 1000 s. Based on the excellent ECL properties of TPENI NPs, an "on-off-on" ECL biosensor with a wider detection range (1 fg/mL to 100 ng/mL) and a lower detection limit of 0.20 fg/mL (S/N = 3) was proposed for sensitive analysis of a carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA). Overall, this work provided a new approach to the realization of AIECL and laid the foundation for the application of naphthalimide derivatives in ECL.

Self-Assembled Tetraphenylethene-Based Nanoaggregates with Tunable Electrochemiluminescence for the Ultrasensitive Detection of E. coli

As an effective ECL emitter, tetraphenylethene (TPE)-based molecules have recently been reported with aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence (AIECL) property, while it is still a big challenge to control its aggregation states and obtain uniform aggregates with intense ECL emission. In this study, we develop three TPE derivatives carrying a pyridinium group, an alkyl chain, and a quaternary ammonium group via the Menschutkin reaction. The resulting molecules exhibit significantly red-shifted FL and enhanced ECL emissions due to the tunable reduction of the energy gap between the highest occupied molecular orbitals (HOMOs) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (LUMOs). More importantly, the amphiphilicity of the as-developed molecules enables their spontaneous self-assembly into well-controlled spherical nanoaggregates, and the ECL intensity of nanoaggregates with 3 -CH2- (named as C3) is 17.0-fold higher compared to that of the original 4-(4-(1,2,2-triphenylvinyl)phenyl)pyridine (TPP) molecule. These cationic nanoaggregates demonstrate a high affinity toward bacteria, and an ECL sensor for the profiling of Escherichia coli (E. coli) was developed with a broad linear range and good selectivity in the presence of an E. coli-specific aptamer. This study provides an effective way to enhance the ECL emission of TPE molecules through their derivatization and a simple way to prepare well-controlled AIECL nanoaggregates for ECL application.

Coupled Poly(ethylenimine) Coreactant to Enhance Electrochemiluminescence of Polymer Dots for Array Imaging of Protein Biomarkers

Traditional electrochemiluminescent (ECL) bioanalysis suffers from the demand for excessive external coreactants and the damage of reaction intermediates. In this work, a poly(ethylenimine) (PEI)-coupled ECL emitter was proposed by covalently coupling tertiary amine-rich PEI to polymer dots (Pdots). The coupled PEI might act as a highly efficient coreactant to enhance the ECL emission of Pdots through intramolecular electron transfer, reducing the electron transfer distance between emitter and coreactant intermediates and avoiding the disadvantages of traditional ECL systems. Through modification of the PEI-Pdots with tDNA, a sequence partially complementary to cDNA that was complementary to the aptamer of target protein biomarker (aDNA), tDNA-PEI-Pdots were obtained. The biosensors were produced using Au/indium tin oxide (ITO) with an aDNA/cDNA hybrid, and an ECL imaging biosensor array was constructed for ultrasensitive detection of protein biomarkers. Using vascular endothelial growth factor 165 (VEGF165) as a protein model, the proposed ECL imaging method containing two simple incubations with target samples and then tDNA-PEI-Pdots showed a detectable range of 1 pg mL-1 to 100 ng mL-1 and a detection limit of 0.71 pg mL-1, as well as excellent performance such as low toxicity, high sensitivity, excellent selectivity, good accuracy, and acceptable fabrication reproducibility. The PEI-coupled Pdots provide a new avenue for the design of ECL emitters and the application of ECL imaging in disease biomarker detection.

A smartphone-assisted electrochemiluminescent detection of miRNA-21 in situ using Ru(bpy)32+@MOF

We have proposed a signal dual-amplification electrochemiluminescence (ECL) strategy based on tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) (Ru(bpy)32+) as chromophores confined with three-dimensional (3D) zinc oxalate metal-organic frameworks (Ru(bpy)32+@MOFs) for the detection of miRNA-21. The three-dimensional chromophore connectivity in zinc oxalate MOFs provided a network among Ru(bpy)32+ units, shielding the chromophores from solvent molecules and resulting in high Ru(II) complex emission efficiency. Additionally, we discovered that magnetic beads (MBs) used as carrier for enriched signals contribute to enhanced ECL intensity of the chromophore. To evaluate its clinical application, we applied this method to determine the concentration of miRNA-21 solutions ranging from 1.56 to 100 nM, obtaining a calibration curve of ECL intensity versus logarithm of concentration (logC) of miRNA-21 with a high correlation coefficient. This work demonstrates the construction of a signal amplification strategy ECL biosensor for miRNA using Ru(bpy)32+@MOF systems and its application in ECL detection for analyte methodology.

Silver Nanocluster-Tagged Electrochemiluminescence Immunoassay with a Sole and Narrow Triggering Potential Window

The commercialized electrochemiluminescence (ECL) immunoassay is carried out by holding luminophore Ru(bpy)32+ at a given potential. Designing an electrochemiluminophore with a narrow triggering potential window is strongly anticipated to decrease the electrochemical cross-talk and improve the flux of the commercialized ECL immunoassay in a potential-resolved way. Herein, L-penicillamine-capped silver nanoclusters (LPA-AgNCs) are facilely synthesized and utilized as tags to perform the ECL immunoassay with a sole and narrow triggering potential window of 0.24 V by employing hydrazine (N2H4) as a coreactant. The maximum ECL emission of the LPA-AgNCs/N2H4 system is located ca. +1.27 V. Upon immobilizing LPA-AgNCs onto the electrode surface via forming a sandwich immunocomplex, the ECL of LPA-AgNCs/N2H4 can be utilized to sensitively and selectively determine human carcinoembryonic antigen from 0.5 to 1000 pg/mL with a low limit of detection of 0.1 pg/mL (S/N = 3). This work might open a way to screen electrochemiluminophores for the multiple ECL immunoassay in a potential-resolved way.

LuMA-Functionalized Thermosensitive Hydrogel: A Versatile and Robust Dopamine-Triggered Platform for Diverse Biomolecules Sensing

It is of great significance for the analysis of multiple biomarkers because a single biomarker is difficult to accurately achieve early diagnosis, disease course monitoring, and prognosis evaluation. Herein, a luminescence thermosensitive hydrogel was synthesized by radical polymerization using a methacrylic acid derivative monomer of luminol (LuMA) as luminescent, N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) as thermosensitive monomer, and acrydite-oligonucleotides [dopamine (DA) aptamer, DNA C1, and DNA C2] as recognition elements. The combined DA based on the affinity interaction between the DA and the aptamer on the hydrogel polymer chain was electrochemically oxidized to dopamine quinone during the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) scanning, which effectively quenched the ECL signal of LuMA due to the resonance energy transfer (RET). In addition, the thermosensitive hydrogel showed swelling-collapse characteristics when the temperature was below and above the volume phase transition temperature. Undergoing the collapse process initiated by the temperature, the RET efficiency was further enhanced due to the shortened distance between the energy donor and acceptor, showing a 1.4 times signal amplification and achieving sensitive detection of DA with a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.7 × 10-10 M. For a proof of concept application, coupled with the target-induced release of DA from the DNA-magnetic beads bioconjugations based on duplex-specific nuclease (DSN)-assisted target recycling amplification strategy and DNAzyme cleavage reaction, this ECL-RET approach was successfully used to evaluate multiple targets including miRNA-141 and MUC1 with the LOD of 2.5 aM and 1.6 fg/mL, respectively. The excellent performances of the versatile and robust ECL-RET hydrogel in multiple target sensing showed potential applications in clinical diagnosis and disease therapeutic assay.

Facile preparation of poly-(styrene-co-maleic anhydride) encapsulated Iridium(III) complexes as highly efficient electrochemiluminescence indicators for sensitive immunoassay of CYFRA 21-1

Exploring facile strategy for developing highly efficient emitters using water-insoluble luminophores has become a vital topic in electrochemiluminescence (ECL) immunoassay. In this work, an ECL-active and water-dispersive iridium(III) complex-based polymer dots (IrPdots) was fabricated by encapsulating water-insoluble tris[1-phenylisoquinolinato-C2, N] iridium(III) complexes [Ir(piq)₃] into poly-(styrene-co-maleic anhydride) (PSMA) matrix by a controllable nanoprecipitation process. The obtained IrPdots generated strong ECL signals in the presence of tri-n-propylamine (TPrA) and were used to label detection antibody (Ab₂) to act as ECL probes to indicate the signal changes when analyzing target antigen. To construct a sandwich immunosensor, Pd nanoparticles (NPs) decorated MoS₂/Ti₃C₂T_x MXene nanocomposites (MoS₂/Ti₃C₂T_x MXene/Pd) were fabricated as substrates to bind capture antibody (Ab₁), which could further amplify ECL signals via a coreaction-accelerating pathway to improve the detection sensitivity. When the cytokeratin 19 fragment 21-1 (CYFRA 21-1) was chosen as model analyte, the developed immunosensor displayed a good linear relationship ranging from 0.1 pg/mL to 50 ng/mL with a low detection limit of 95 fg/mL (S/N = 3) was achieved as well. This research proposed a facile and effective method of fabricating IrPdots as ECL probes for immunoassay using water-insoluble iridium complexes, which expanded the application scope of those water-insoluble luminophores for aqueous bioanalysis.

Electrochemiluminescence nanoemitters for immunoassay of protein biomarkers

The family of electrochemiluminescent luminophores has witnessed quick development since the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) phenomenon of silicon nanoparticles was first reported in 2002. Moreover, these developed ECL nanoemitters have extensively been applied in sensitive detection of protein biomarker by combining with immunological recognition. This review firstly summarized the origin and development of various ECL nanoemitters including inorganic and organic nanomaterials, with an emphasis on metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)-based ECL nanoemitters. Several effective strategies to amplify the ECL response of nanoemitters and improve the sensitivity of immunosensing were discussed. The application of ECL nanoemitters in immunoassay of protein biomarkers for diagnosis of cancers and other diseases, especially lung cancer and heart diseases, was comprehensively presented. The recent development of ECL imaging with the nanoemitters as ECL tags for detection of multiplex protein biomarkers on single cell membrane also attracted attention. Finally, the future opportunities and challenges in the ECL biosensing field were highlighted.

Low-Triggering-Potential Electrochemiluminescence from a Luminol Analogue Functionalized Semiconducting Polymer Dots for Imaging Detection of Blood Glucose

In recent years, semiconducting polymer dots (Pdots) as environmentally friendly and high-brightness electrochemiluminescence (ECL) nanoemitters have attracted intense attention in ECL biosensing and imaging. However, most of the available Pdots have a high ECL excitation potential in the aqueous phase (>1.0 V vs Ag/AgCl), which causes poor selectivity in actual sample detection. Therefore, it is particularly important to construct a simple and universal strategy to lower the trigger potential of Pdots. This work has realized the ECL emission of Pdots at low-trigger-potential based on the electrochemiluminescence resonance energy transfer (ERET) strategy. By covalently coupling the Pdots with a luminol analogue, N-(4-aminobutyl)-N-ethylisoluminol (ABEI), the ABEI-Pdots showed an anodic ECL emission with a low onset potential of +0.34 V and a peak potential at +0.45 V (vs Ag/AgCl), which was the lowest trigger potential reported so far. We further explored this low-triggering-potential ECL for imaging detection of glucose in buffer and serum. By imaging the ABEI-Pdots-modified screen-printed electrodes (SPCE) at +0.45 V for 16 s, the ECL imaging method could quantify the glucose concentration in buffer from 10 to 200 μM with detection limits of 3.3 μM, while exhibiting excellent selectivity. When applied to real serum, the results of our method were highly consistent with a commercial blood glucose meter, with the relative errors ranging from 3.2 to 13%. This work provided a universal strategy for constructing low potential Pdots and demonstrated its application potential in complex biological sample analysis.

A scaffold of thermally activated delayed fluorescent polymer dots towards aqueous electrochemiluminescence and biosensing applications

Thermally activated delayed fluorescent (TADF) polymer dots were prepared, which enables aqueous electrochemiluminescence of TADF polymer emitters and its biosensor application for the first time.

PEGylation Improved Electrochemiluminescence Supramolecular Assembly of Iridium(III) Complexes in Apoferritin for Immunoassays Using 2D/2D MXene/TiO2 Hybrids as Signal Amplifiers

Dynamic self-assembly of iridium complexes in water-soluble nanocontainers is an important bottom-up process for fabricating electrochemiluminescence (ECL) bioprobes. PEGylated apoferritin (PEG-apoHSF) as the host offers a confined space to alter and modify the self-assembly of trans-bis(2-phenylpyridine)(acetylacetonate)iridium(III) [Ir(ppy)₂(acac)] based on a pH-dependent depolymerization/reassembly pathway, allowing the formation of ECL-active iridium cores in PEG-apoHSF cavities (Ir@PEG-apoHSF). With an improved encapsulation ratio in PEG-apoHSF, the coreactant ECL behavior of the fabricated Ir@PEG-apoHSF nanodots with tri-n-propylamine (TPrA) was further demonstrated, exhibiting maximum ECL emission at 530 nm that was theoretically dominated by the band gap transition. The application of Ir@PEG-apoHSF as a bioprobe in a "signal-on" ECL immunosensing system was developed based on electroactive Ti₃C₂T_x MXenes/TiO₂ nanosheet (Ti₃C₂T_x/TiO₂) hybrids. Combining with the efficiently catalyzed electro-oxidation of TPrA and Ir(ppy)₂(acac) by Ti₃C₂T_x/TiO₂ hybrids, the developed immunosensor showed dramatically amplified ECL responses toward the target analyte of neuron-specific enolase (NSE). Under experimental conditions, linear quantification of NSE from 100 fg/mL to 50 ng/mL was well established by this assay, achieving a limit of detection (LOD) of 35 fg/mL. The results showcased the capability of PEGylated apoHSF to host and stabilize water-insoluble iridium complexes as ECL emitters for aqueous biosensing and immunoassays.

Surface Plasmon Coupling Electrochemiluminescence Immunosensor Based on Polymer Dots and AuNPs for Ultrasensitive Detection of Pancreatic Cancer Exosomes

Polymer dots (Pdots) have become attractive electrochemiluminescence (ECL) luminophores due to their facile synthesis, easy modification, and stable electrochemical and optical properties. However, their ECL efficiency is not high enough for practical applications. In this work, we proposed an ECL immunosensor based on localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) between AuNPs and Pdots for the determination of pancreatic cancer exosomes. Based on the finite-difference time-domain simulations and the band energy of Pdots and AuNPs, we proposed the possible LSPR mechanism. The hot electrons of plasmonic AuNPs were photoexcited to surface plasmon states by ECL emission of Pdots, and then the excited hot electrons were transferred to the conduction band of Pdots, which significantly improved the ECL efficiency of Pdots. The ECL immunosensor displayed a wide calibration range of 1.0 × 10³ to 1.0 × 10⁶ particles/mL with a detection limit of 400 particles/mL. Cancer-related protein profiling revealed high selectivity toward different expressions of exosomal surface proteins from PANC-01, HeLa, MCF-7, and HPDE6-C7 cell lines. The proposed ECL system exhibits a promising prospect for protein biomarker profiling and early cancer-related diagnosis.

Low-Triggering-Potential Electrochemiluminescence from Surface-Confined CuInS2@ZnS Nanocrystals and their Biosensing Applications

Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) of low triggering potential is strongly anticipated for ECL assays with less inherent electrochemical interference and improved long-term stability of the working electrode. Herein, effects of the thiol capping agents and the states of luminophores, i.e., the thiol-capped CuInS₂@ZnS nanocrystals (CuInS₂@ZnS-Thiol), on the ECL triggering potential of CuInS₂@ZnS-Thiol/N₂H₄·H₂O were explored on the Au working electrode. The thiol capping agent of glutathione (GSH) not only enabled CuInS₂@ZnS-Thiol/N₂H₄·H₂O with the stronger oxidative-reduction ECL than other thiol capping agents but also demonstrated the largest shift for the ECL triggering potential of CuInS₂@ZnS-Thiol/N₂H₄·H₂O upon changing the luminophores from the monodispersed state to the surface-confined state. CuInS₂@ZnS-GSH/N₂H₄·H₂O exhibited an efficient oxidative-reduction ECL around 0.78 V (vs Ag/AgCl) with CuInS₂@ZnS-GSH of the monodispersed state. Upon employing CuInS₂@ZnS-GSH as the ECL tag and immobilizing them onto the Au working electrode, the oxidative-reduction ECL of CuInS₂@ZnS-GSH/N₂H₄·H₂O was lowered to 0.32 V (vs Ag/AgCl), which was about 0.88 V lower than that of traditional Ru(bpy)₃²⁺/TPrA (typically ∼1.2 V, vs Ag/AgCl). The ECL of the CuInS₂@ZnS-GSH/N₂H₄·H₂O system with the luminophore of both monodispersed and surface-confined states was spectrally identical to each other, indicating that this surface-confining strategy exhibited negligible effect on the excited state for the ECL of CuInS₂@ZnS-GSH. A surface-confined ECL sensor around 0.32 V was fabricated with CuInS₂@ZnS-GSH as a luminophore, which could sensitively and selectively determine the K-RAS gene from 1 to 500 pM with a limit of detection at 0.5 pmol L^-1 (S/N = 3).

Facile Encapsulation of Iridium(III) Complexes in Apoferritin Nanocages as Promising Electrochemiluminescence Nanodots for Immunoassays

A class of water-soluble electrochemiluminescence (ECL) nanodots were prepared by encapsulating ECL-active iridium complexes into biocompatible horse spleen apoferritin (apoHSF) nanocages for immunoassays. The preparation feasibility was achieved based on the pH-induced disassembly/reassembly nature originated from apoHSF. Two iridium nanodots (1 and 2) with high ECL efficiency were separately prepared by directing the self-assembly of two water-insoluble luminescent complexes, Ir(ppy)₃ (ppy = 2-phenylpyridine) and Ir(ppy)₂(acac) (ppy = 2-phenylpyridine and acac = acetylacetonate), in the apoHSF cavity. Using tri-n-propylamine (TPrA) as a coreactant, the electrochemistry and "oxidative-reductive" ECL mechanisms for nanodots 1 and 2 were investigated, respectively. After demonstrating the spectroscopic property and relative ECL efficiency, the ECL emission of nanodots 1 and 2 quenched by TPrA^• radicals at high potential was further studied and circumvented by optimizing the potential range and TPrA concentration for generating strong and stable ECL emission in aqueous media. The well-inherited biological functions of apoHSF in nanodots allow the convenient external modification of an antibody to act as a signal probe, thus a versatile ECL immunoassay paradigm was established. Acceptable results from this assay enabled the rapid and accurate detection of biomarkers in real samples. The unprecedented use of apoHSF is feasible and applicable for water-insoluble iridium complexes to fabricate a wide variety of biocompatible ECL nanodots for potential bioanalysis.

Label-free immunosensor for cardiac troponin I detection based on aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence of a distyrylarylene derivative

Herein, the aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence (AIECL) of a distyrylarylene derivative, 4,4'-bis(2,2-diphenylvinyl)-1,1'-biphenyl (DPVBi), was investigated for the first time. This luminophore exhibits significantly enhanced photoluminescence (PL) and electrochemiluminescence (ECL) emission with the increases of water content in organic/water mixtures. This high luminescence efficiency of DPVBi in aggregate state is due to the fact that the aggregates can reduce the energy loss by restricting the intramolecular motions. The ECL behavior of DPVBi in acetonitrile was investigated by ECL transients and so-called "half-scan" technology, where singlet-singlet annihilation ECL was generated under continuous potential switching. The DPVBi nanobulks (DPVBi NBs) were prepared to improve its application in aqueous media, which could be conveniently cast on electrode surface for developing sensing platform due to its good film-forming nature. The constructed heterogeneous AIECL platform can produce reductive-oxidative and oxidative-reductive ECL by using trimethylamine (TEA) and potassium peroxodisulfate (K₂S₂O₈) as coreactant. On the basis of the higher ECL efficiency of DPVBi NBs/TEA system, a label free immunosensor for cardiac troponin I (cTnI) was developed with the assistance of electrodeposited gold nanoparticles, and it showed a wide linear range of 20 ng/mL~100 fg/mL and low detection limit of 43 fg/mL. Moreover, the constructed immunosensor also exhibited good specificity, stability and satisfied performance in practical sample analysis.

Nanoencapsulation strategy: enabling electrochemiluminescence of thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) emitters in aqueous media

A nanoencapsulation strategy is introduced to a state-of-the-art thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) molecule, i.e. 4CzIPN, which ensures the achievement of air-stable, water-soluble TADF nanoparticles featuring efficient TADF property without an unsatisfactory oxygen quenching effect. Accordingly, we report here for the first time the electrochemiluminescence of TADF emitters in aqueous media.

Conducting Silicone-Based Polymers and Their Application

Over the past two decades, both fundamental and applied research in conducting polymers have grown rapidly. Conducting polymers (CPs) are unique due to their ease of synthesis, environmental stability, and simple doping/dedoping chemistry. Electrically conductive silicone polymers are the current state-of-the-art for, e.g., optoelectronic materials. The combination of inorganic elements and organic polymers leads to a highly electrically conductive composite with improved thermal stability. Silicone-based materials have a set of extremely interesting properties, i.e., very low surface energy, excellent gas and moisture permeability, good heat stability, low-temperature flexibility, and biocompatibility. The most effective parameters constructing the physical properties of CPs are conjugation length, degree of crystallinity, and intra- and inter-chain interactions. Conducting polymers, owing to their ease of synthesis, remarkable environmental stability, and high conductivity in the doped form, have remained thoroughly studied due to their varied applications in fields like biological activity, drug release systems, rechargeable batteries, and sensors. For this reason, this review provides an overview of organosilicon polymers that have been reported over the past two decades.

Electrochemistry and Electrochemiluminescence of Coumarin Derivative Microrods: Mechanism Insights

Organic molecules and related nanomaterials have attracted extensive attention in the realm of electrochemiluminescence (ECL). Herein, a well-known electroluminescence (EL) dopant 2,3,6,7-tetrahydro-1,1,7,7,-tetramethyl-1H,5H,11H-10-(2-benzothiazolyl)quinolizino-[9,9a,1gh] coumarin (C545T) is selected as a new ECL illuminant, which shows a high photoluminescence quantum yield of nearly 100% and excellent ECL performance in the organic phase. For utilizing C545T to achieve ECL detection in aqueous solution, organic microrods of C545T (C545T MRs) were synthesized by a precipitation method. Cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry of C545T and C545T MRs in acetonitrile or phosphate buffer showed one reduction and multiple oxidation peaks, suggesting that the multiple charge states of C545T could be produced by continuous electron- or hole-injection processes. The annihilated ECL emission of C545T and C545T MRs was observed using ECL transient technology. In the presence of triethanolamine (TEOA) or potassium persulfate (K₂S₂O₈), C545T MRs can also give bright anodic and cathodic ECL emission at the GCE/water interface. The proposed ECL system not only has multichannel ECL emission but also shows intense yellow emission (569 nm) with a relative ECL efficiency of 0.81 when TEOA was used as a coreactant. Benefiting from the strong ECL emission of the C545T MRs/TEOA system and the quenching effect of dopamine (DA) on ECL, a convenient sensor for DA was developed with high selectivity and sensitivity.

Aggregation-Induced Electrochemiluminescence Immunosensor Based on 9,10-Diphenylanthracene Cubic Nanoparticles for Ultrasensitive Detection of Aflatoxin B1

9,10-Diphenylanthracene cubic nanoparticles (DPA CNPs) with aggregation-induced emission characteristic (AIEgens) were synthesized through a facile reprecipitation method; then, a bright and stable electrochemiluminescence (ECL) signal can be observed when the DPA CNPs were modified at the glassy carbon electrode (GCE) in the presence of Tri-n-propylamine (TPA). This phenomenon is ascribed to the molecules with restricted movement that greatly blocked the energy leakage during the relaxation of the excited state, which facilitated the emission of energy in the form of photons. In addition, the size confinement effect of DPA CNPs in the aggregated state effectively enhanced the ECL emission. The application of DPA CNPs with AIE characteristics in an electrochemiluminescence immunosensor has not been reported. In this contribution, a free-label aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence immunosensor based on DPA CNPs was fabricated and a simple strategy for ultrasensitive detection of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) was proposed. The ECL signal is quenched linearly in the range of 0.01 pg/mL to 100 ng/mL for AFB₁, and the detection limit is 3 fg/mL. In summary, the prepared sensor exhibits high sensitivity, acceptable accuracy, good anti-interference ability and stability, and satisfactory detection toward AFB₁ in walnut samples. Therefore, the fabricated immunosensor will have significant applications in the fields of food, medicine, and so on.

Benzosiloles with Crystallization-Induced Emission Enhancement of Electrochemiluminescence: Synthesis, Electrochemistry, and Crystallography

Crystallization-induced emission enhancement (CIEE) was demonstrated for the first time for electrochemilunimescence (ECL) with two new benzosiloles. Compared with their solution, the films of the two benzosiloles gave CIEE of 24 and 16 times. The mechanism of the CIEE-ECL was examined by spooling ECL spectroscopy, X-ray crystal structure analysis, photoluminescence, and DFT calculations. This CIEE-ECL system is a complement to the well-established aggregation-induced emission enhancement (AIEE) systems. Unique intermolecular interactions are noted in the crystalline chromophore. The first heterogeneous ECL system is established for organic compounds with highly hydrophobic properties.

Amplified electrochemiluminescence signals promoted by the AIE-active moiety of D-A type polymer dots for biosensing

Three-component conjugated polymers of a strong donor-acceptor (D-A) type could be synthesized by Pd-catalyzed Suzuki coupling polymerization reaction of 1,2-bis(4-bromophenyl)-1,2-diphenylethene (M-1) with 9-octyl-3,6-bis(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-9H-carbazole (M-2) and 4,6-bis((E)-4-bromostyryl)-2,2-difluoro-5-phenyl-2H-1l3,3,2l4-dioxaborinine (M-3). Among them, P-1 and P-2 with high TPE ratios at 0.95 and 0.9 showed obvious aggregation-induced emission (AIE) behavior; in contrast P-3 with a low TPE ratio at 0.8 showed an aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) phenomenon. In particular, the three resulting polymer dots (P-1 to P-3 Pdots) exhibited a 200 mV lower electrochemiluminescence (ECL) potential due to their strong D-A electronic structure. Most importantly, the ECL signals of Pdots could be enhanced as high as 3 times by increasing their AIE-active TPE moiety ratios from 0.8 (P-3) to 0.95 (P-1) via the band gap emission process. Herein, P-1 Pdots with the strongest ECL signal were successfully used as ECL biosensors for the detection of catechol, epinephrine and dopamine with detection limits of 1, 7 and 3 nM, respectively. This work provides a new strategy for developing highly sensitive ECL biosensors by the smart structure design of the AIE-active Pdots.

Tetraphenylenthene-Based Conjugated Microporous Polymer for Aggregation-Induced Electrochemiluminescence

We demonstrate the aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence (AIECL) generated by 1,1,2,2-tetrakis(4-bromophenyl)ethane (TBPE)-based conjugated microporous polymers (TBPE-CMPs) and its biosensing application. We synthesized three TBPE-CMPs (i.e., TBPE-CMP-1, -2, -3) using three different molecules including tris(4-ethynylphenyl)amine (TEPA), 4,4'-diethynylbiphenyl (DEP), and 2,4,6-tris(4-ethynylphenyl)-1,3,5-triazine (TEPT). The TBPE-CMPs can act as electrochemiluminescence (ECL) emitters to generate AIECL. Among them, TBPE-CMP-1 exhibits the highest ECL efficiency (1.72%) due to the improved electron-hole recombination efficiency and efficient suppression of nonradiative transition. Moreover, the ECL properties of TBPE-CMPs can be tuned by the introduction of different conjugated molecules that can decrease the energy gap to facilitate the injection of an electron into the conjugated polymer backbone. Importantly, TBPE-CMP-1 can be used to construct an ECL sensor for the detection of dopamine, whose electro-oxidation products (e.g., leucodopaminechrome (LDC), dopaminechrome (DC), 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI), and 5,6-indolequinone (IDQ)) may function as energy acceptors to quench the ECL emission of TBPE-CMP-1. This ECL sensor exhibits high sensitivity and good anti-interference capability against ascorbic acid and uric acid.

Highly Efficient Aggregation-Induced Electrochemiluminescence of Polyfluorene Derivative Nanoparticles Containing Tetraphenylethylene

The aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence (AIECL) of polyfluorene derivative nanoparticles containing tetraphenylethylene (TPE) in aqueous media is reported in this work. The TPE unit limits the intramolecular free rotation of phenyl rings, as well as the π-π stacking interactions of molecules, which significantly enhances ECL signal of the polyfluorene nanoparticles. With co-reactants of tri-n-propylamine (TPrA) and S2O82-, the copolymer nanoparticles show visualized ECL emissions at both positive and negative potentials. The ECL efficiency of copolymer nanoparticles in solid state is 163% compared with that of standard ECL species, Ru(bpy)32+. And at negative potential, the ECL intensity of copolymer nanoparticles is even stronger with 6.5 times compared with that at positive potential. The ECL generation mechanisms are analyzed detailed by annihilation and co-reactant route transient ECL test (millisecond scale). This work provides a reference for the organic structure design for AIECL and shows promising potential in luminescent device and biological applications.

A new fluorescent hemicryptophane for acetylcholine recognition with an unusual recognition mode

The ammonium of the target interacts with the south part of the hemicryptophane probably because the cyclotriveratrylene's electronic density is altered by the extension of conjugation.

Promising Mercaptobenzoic Acid-Bridged Charge Transfer for Electrochemiluminescence from CuInS2@ZnS Nanocrystals via Internal Cu+/Cu2+ Couple Cycling

Screening novel electrochemiluminescence (ECL) systems with less inherent interference is strongly anticipated for ECL evolution. Herein, near-infrared ECL (∼730 nm) with an ultralow triggering potential of 0.45 V (vs Ag/AgCl) is achieved under physiological conditions with 4-mercaptobenzoic acid (MBA) and citrate capped CuInS₂@ZnS (CIS@ZnS) nanocrystals (NCs), which is promising for less autofluorescence and electrochemical interference. Cu⁺ species within the CIS@ZnS NCs can be electrochemically oxidized at 0.45 V to form internal Cu²⁺ defects, while the capping agent MBA can bridge a direct charge transfer between the oxidized NCs and the traditional coreactant tripropylamine (TPrA) for weak ECL at 0.45 V. When hydrazine hydrate is adopted as coreactant, CIS@ZnS NCs/hydrazine hydrate exhibits 8k-fold enhanced oxidative-reduction ECL via the internal Cu⁺/Cu²⁺ couple cycling at 0.45 V in comparison to CIS@ZnS NCs/TPrA. This work opens a way to enhance the radiative charge transfer of NCs.

Recent Advances in Aggregation-Induced Electrochemiluminescence

The emergence of the rising alliance between aggregation-induced emission (AIE) and electrochemiluminescence (ECL) is defined as aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence (AIECL). The booming science of AIE has proved to be not only distinguished in luminescent materials but could also inject new possibility into ECL analysis. Especially in the aqueous phase and solid state for hydrophobic materials, AIE helps ECL circumvent the dilemma between substantial emission intensity and biocompatible media. The wide range of analytes makes ECL an overwhelmingly interesting analytical technique. Therefore, AIECL has gained potential in clinical diagnostics, environmental assays, and biomarker detections. This review will focus on introduction of the novel concept of AIECL, current applied luminophores, and related applications developed in recent years.

Unusually Strong Electrochemiluminescence from Iridium-Based Redox Polymers Immobilized As Thin Layers or Polymer Nanoparticles

A new class of redox metallopolymer based on cyclometalated iridium(III) centers is described, with unusually intense luminescence properties in aqueous media. We report the facile synthesis, photophysical and electrochemical characterization, supported by DFT calculations and their electrochemiluminescence (ECL) properties which, under some circumstances, are significantly greater than the analogous ruthenium-based materials. The photoluminescence (PL) and ECL of these materials are further dramatically enhanced when dispersed or immobilized as polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs). This aggregation-induced emission (AIE and AIECL) operates by providing important protection for the cyclometalated iridium(III) centers against the types of quenching processes which commonly afflict iridium-based luminophores in aqueous media. The results suggest interesting new avenues of research for the application of such materials in and PL and ECL-based detection and imaging as well as light-emitting devices.

Ti3C2 MXenes nanosheets catalyzed highly efficient electrogenerated chemiluminescence biosensor for the detection of exosomes

Exosomes have been reported to play an important role in the anti-tumor immune response, tumor diagnosis and other processes, and are promising biomarkers for early cancer diagnosis. In this work, a sensitive electrogenerated chemiluminescence (ECL) biosensor was developed for detection of exosomes using aptamer modified two-dimensional material Ti₃C₂ MXenes nanosheets as the ECL nanoprobe because of its large surface area, the excellent conductivity and catalytic properties. The exosomes can be high efficiently captured onto the electrode surface by an EpCAM protein recognized aptamer modified on the electrode surface. In addition, the ECL nanoprobe can also recognize the exosomes, and significantly enhanced the ECL signals of luminol. Based on this strategy, a highly sensitive ECL biosensor for MCF-7 exosomes detection was obtained. The detection limit is 125 particles μL^-1, which was over 100 times lower than that of conventional ELISA method. The as prepared ECL biosensor was performed successfully for MCF-7 exosomes detection in the serum. This strategy provided a feasible, sensitive and reliable tool for the exosomes detection in exosomes-related clinical diagnostics.

Highly Sensitive and Quality Self-Testable Electrochemiluminescence Assay of DNA Methyltransferase Activity Using Multifunctional Sandwich-Assembled Carbon Nitride Nanosheets

DNA methylation catalyzed by methylase plays a key role in many biological activities. However, developing a highly sensitive, simple, and reliable way for evaluation of DNA methyltransferase (MTase) activity is still a challenge. Here, we report a sandwich-assembled electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensor using multifunctional carbon nitride nanosheets (CNNS) to evaluate the Dam MTase activity. The CNNS could not only be used as an excellent substrate to conjugate a large amount of hairpin probe DNA to improve the sensitivity but also be utilized as an internal reliability checker and an analyte reporter in the bottom and top layers of the biosensor, respectively. Such a unique sandwich configuration of CNNS well coupled the advantages of ECL luminophor that were generally assembled in the bottom or top layer in a conventional manner. As a result, the biosensor exhibited an ultralow detection limit down to 0.043 U/mL and a linear range between 0.05 and 80 U/mL, superior to the MTase activity assay in most previous reports. We highlighted the great potential of emerging CNNS luminophor in developing highly sensitive and smart quality self-testable ECL sensing systems using a sandwiched configuration for early disease diagnosis, treatment, and management.

The amplified electrochemiluminescence response signal promoted by the Ir(iii)-containing polymer complex

A novel Ir(iii)-containing polymer complex can emit an apparently enhanced ECL signal using TPrA as a co-reactant in CH₃CN solution due to the effective intramolecular metal–ligand charge transfer (MLCT) from the Ir(iii)-complex centre to the polymer backbone.

Electrochemiluminescence biosensing based on different modes of switching signals

Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) has attracted much attention in various fields of analysis owing to low background signals, high sensitivity, and excellent controllability.