1
|
Guerra-Ojeda S, Marchio P, Suarez A, Aldasoro M, Valles SL, Genoves P, Vila JM, Mauricio MD. Levamisole Impairs Vascular Function by Blocking α-Adrenergic Receptors and Reducing NO Bioavailability in Rabbit Renal Artery. Cardiovasc Toxicol 2024; 24:789-799. [PMID: 38877381 PMCID: PMC11300484 DOI: 10.1007/s12012-024-09879-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
Levamisole is an anthelmintic drug restricted to veterinary use but is currently detected as the most widely used cocaine cutting agent in European countries. Levamisole-adulterated cocaine has been linked to acute kidney injury, marked by a decrease in glomerular filtration rate, which involves reduced renal blood flow, but data on the alteration of renovascular response produced by levamisole are scarce. Renal arteries were isolated from healthy rabbits and used for isometric tension recording in organ baths and protein analysis. We provide evidence that depending on its concentration, levamisole modulates renovascular tone by acting as a non-selective α-adrenergic receptor blocker and down-regulates α1-adrenoceptor expression. Furthermore, levamisole impairs the endothelium-dependent relaxation induced by acetylcholine without modifying endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression. However, exposure to superoxide dismutase (SOD) partially prevents the impairment of ACh-induced relaxation by levamisole. This response is consistent with a down-regulation of SOD1 and an up-regulation of NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4), suggesting that endothelial NO loss is due to increased local oxidative stress. Our findings demonstrate that levamisole can interfere with renal blood flow and the coordinated response to a vasodilator stimulus, which could worsen the deleterious consequences of cocaine use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sol Guerra-Ojeda
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia, Blasco Ibañez, 15, 46010, Valencia, Spain
- INCLIVA, Institute of Health Research, Valencia, Spain
| | - Patricia Marchio
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia, Blasco Ibañez, 15, 46010, Valencia, Spain
| | - Andrea Suarez
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia, Blasco Ibañez, 15, 46010, Valencia, Spain
- INCLIVA, Institute of Health Research, Valencia, Spain
| | - Martin Aldasoro
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia, Blasco Ibañez, 15, 46010, Valencia, Spain
- INCLIVA, Institute of Health Research, Valencia, Spain
| | - Soraya L Valles
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia, Blasco Ibañez, 15, 46010, Valencia, Spain
| | - Patricia Genoves
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia, Blasco Ibañez, 15, 46010, Valencia, Spain
- INCLIVA, Institute of Health Research, Valencia, Spain
- Center for Biomedical Research Network on Cardiovascular Diseases (CIBER-CV), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose M Vila
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia, Blasco Ibañez, 15, 46010, Valencia, Spain
- INCLIVA, Institute of Health Research, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria D Mauricio
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia, Blasco Ibañez, 15, 46010, Valencia, Spain.
- INCLIVA, Institute of Health Research, Valencia, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Steijlen ASM, Parrilla M, Van Echelpoel R, De Wael K. Dual Microfluidic Sensor System for Enriched Electrochemical Profiling and Identification of Illicit Drugs On-Site. Anal Chem 2024; 96:590-598. [PMID: 38154077 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical sensors have emerged as a new analytical tool for illicit drug detection to facilitate ultrafast and accurate identification of suspicious compounds on-site. Drugs of abuse can be identified using their unique voltammetric fingerprint at a given pH. Today, the right buffer solution is manually selected based on drug appearance, and in some cases, a consecutive analysis in two different pH solutions is required. In this work, we present a disposable microfluidic multichannel sensor system that automatically records fingerprints in two pH solutions (e.g., pH 5 and pH 12). This system has two advantages. It will overcome the manual selection of a buffer solution at the right pH, decrease analysis time, and minimize the risk of human errors. Second, the combination of two fingerprints, the superfingerprint, contains more detailed information about the samples, which enhances the selectivity of the analytical technique. First, real-time pH measurements proved that the sample can be brought to the desired pH within a minute. Subsequently, an electrochemical study on the microfluidic platform with 1 mM illicit drug standards of MDMA, cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine showed that the characteristic voltammetric fingerprints and peak potentials are reproducible, also in the presence of common cutting agents. Finally, the microfluidic concept was validated with real confiscated samples, showing promising results for the user-friendly identification of drugs of abuse. In short, this paper presents a successful proof-of-concept study of a multichannel microfluidic sensor system to enrich the fingerprints of illicit drugs at pH 5 and pH 12, thus providing a low-cost, portable, and rapid identification system of illicit drugs with minimal user intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annemarijn S M Steijlen
- A-Sense Lab, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marc Parrilla
- A-Sense Lab, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Robin Van Echelpoel
- A-Sense Lab, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Karolien De Wael
- A-Sense Lab, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Van Echelpoel R, Joosten F, Parrilla M, De Wael K. Progress on the Electrochemical Sensing of Illicit Drugs. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 187:413-442. [PMID: 38273206 DOI: 10.1007/10_2023_239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Illicit drugs are harmful substances, threatening both health and safety of societies in all corners of the world. Several policies have been developed over time to deal with this illicit drug problem, including supply reduction and harm reduction policies. Both policies require on-site detection tools to succeed, i.e. sensors that can identify illicit drugs in samples at the point-of-care. Electrochemical sensors are highly suited for this task, due to their short analysis times, low cost, high accuracy, portability and orthogonality with current technologies. In this chapter, we evaluate the latest trend in electrochemical sensing of illicit drugs, with a focus on detection of illicit drugs in seizures and body fluids. Furthermore, we will also provide an outlook on the potential of electrochemistry in wearable sensors for this purpose.
Collapse
|
4
|
Chen Q, Yao L, Xu J, Qi Q, Tao S, Song X, Chen W. Stepwise Au decoration-assisted double signal amplified lateral flow strip for ultrasensitive detection of morphine in fingerprint sweat. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1278:341684. [PMID: 37709439 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.341684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Point-of-care testing (POCT) of morphine (MOP) without invasion of privacy is of critical importance for law-enforcement departments to realize on-site rapid screening. In this study, ultrasensitive and non-invasive screening of MOP residues in the fingerprint sweat was easily realized by stepwise Au decoration-assisted double signal amplification and antibody-saving strategies on lateral flow strip (LFS). The construction of LFS was not intrinsically changed compared with traditional LFS except the labeling material on conjugation pad for enhanced signal reporting. The gold nanoparticle-seeded SiO2 was adopted as the labeling materials in place of traditional gold nanoparticles, which acted as the first-round signal amplification and ready for second-round gold deposition-assisted amplification. And the second-round amplification could be completed in just 10 s, which did not alter the intrinsic simplicity of LFS for rapid and on-site screening. With the designed signal amplification principle of LFS, target MOP in the fingerprint sweat can be effectively transferred to the LFS for analysis without invasion of privacy. As low as 0.5 pg MOP in fingerprint sweat can be visually judged with this double signal amplified LFS, the sensitivity of which has been improved at least 10-fold compared with traditional Au-labeled LFS, guaranteeing accurate screening of trace MOP in the fingerprint sweat. Of great importance, the consumption of valuable antibody can be reduced to just 1/20, which greatly reduces the cost of high-throughput screening. This stepwise Au decoration-assisted double signal amplified LFS holds great potential in the ultrasensitive screening of trace analytes in various fields and further widens the application scope of lateral flow strips.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qi Chen
- Research Center of Bio-process, MOE, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China
| | - Li Yao
- Research Center of Bio-process, MOE, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China
| | - Jianguo Xu
- Research Center of Bio-process, MOE, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China
| | - Qiujing Qi
- Evidence Identification Center of Anhui Province Public Security Department, Hefei, 230061, China
| | - Sha Tao
- Second School of Clinical Medicine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Xin Song
- Criminal Police Detachment of Hefei Public Bureau, Hefei, 230051, China.
| | - Wei Chen
- Research Center of Bio-process, MOE, School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Anbiaee G, Khoshbin Z, Zamanian J, Samie A, Ramezani M, Alibolandi M, Danesh NM, Taghdisi SM, Abnous K. A fluorescent aptasensor for quantification of cocaine mediated by signal amplification characteristics of UiO-66/AuNPs nanocomposite. Anal Biochem 2023:115193. [PMID: 37257736 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2023.115193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Due to the detrimental effects of cocaine on the human body such as organ damage, paranoia, immunodeficiency, cardiovascular disease, blood pressure, and stress, it is highly required to develop sensing approaches for its rapid and facile determination. Based on the signal enhancement capability of the UiO-66/AuNPs nanocomposite and acting as a capture agent, we designed a cost-effective fluorescent aptasensor for cocaine detection. The cocaine presence in the sample would cause a considerable escalation in the quenching of the fluorescence signal. The aptasensor achieved the linear response range over 0.5 μM-20 μM with a low detection limit of 0.178 μM. The selectivity of the designed aptasensing assay was successfully confirmed by examining several analgesic drugs. The aptasensor was employed for cocaine determination in human serum as the real samples. This method has a substantial benefit the for development of a low-cost and facile tool in medicine and forensic science.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ghasem Anbiaee
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Zahra Khoshbin
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Targeted Drug Delivery Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Javad Zamanian
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Ali Samie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Targeted Drug Delivery Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ramezani
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mona Alibolandi
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Noor Mohammd Danesh
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyed Mohammad Taghdisi
- Targeted Drug Delivery Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
| | - Khalil Abnous
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Stelmaszczyk P, Kwaczyński K, Rudnicki K, Skrzypek S, Wietecha-Posłuszny R, Poltorak L. Nitrazepam and 7-aminonitrazepam studied at the macroscopic and microscopic electrified liquid-liquid interface. Mikrochim Acta 2023; 190:182. [PMID: 37052720 PMCID: PMC10101902 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-023-05739-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Two benzodiazepine type drugs, that is, nitrazepam and 7-aminonitrazepam, were studied at the electrified liquid-liquid interface (eLLI). Both drugs are illicit and act sedative in the human body and moreover are used as date rape drugs. Existence of the diazepine ring in the concerned chemicals structure and one additional amine group (for 7-aminonitrazepam) allows for the molecular charging below their pKa values, and hence, both drugs can cross the eLLI interface upon application of the appropriate value of the Galvani potential difference. Chosen molecules were studied at the macroscopic eLLI formed in the four electrode cell and microscopic eLLI formed within a microtip defined as the single pore having 25 μm in diameter. Microscopic eLLI was formed using only a few μL of the organic and the aqueous phase with the help of a 3D printed cell. Parameters such as limit of detection and voltammetric detection sensitivity are derived from the experimental data. Developed methodology was used to detect nitrazepam in pharmaceutical formulation and both drugs (nitrazepam and 7-aminonitrazepam) in spiked biological fluids (urine and blood).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Stelmaszczyk
- Laboratory for Forensic Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 2, 30-387, Krakow, Poland
| | - Karolina Kwaczyński
- Electrochemistry@Soft Interfaces Team, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Konrad Rudnicki
- Electrochemistry@Soft Interfaces Team, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Sławomira Skrzypek
- Electrochemistry@Soft Interfaces Team, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Renata Wietecha-Posłuszny
- Laboratory for Forensic Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 2, 30-387, Krakow, Poland.
| | - Lukasz Poltorak
- Electrochemistry@Soft Interfaces Team, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Dragan AM, Parrilla M, Sleegers N, Slosse A, Van Durme F, van Nuijs A, Oprean R, Cristea C, De Wael K. Investigating the electrochemical profile of methamphetamine to enable fast on-site detection in forensic analysis. Talanta 2023; 255:124208. [PMID: 36628903 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.124208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (MA) is a synthetic psychoactive drug which is consumed both licitly and illicitly. In some countries it is prescribed for attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder, and short-term treatment of obesity. More often though, it is abused for its psychostimulant properties. Unfortunately, the spread and abuse of this synthetic drug have increased globally, being reported as the most widely consumed synthetic psychoactive drug in the world in 2019. Attempting to overcome the shortcomings of the currently used on-site methods for MA detection in suspected cargos, the present study explores the potential of electrochemical identification of MA by means of square wave voltammetry on disposable graphite screen-printed electrodes. Hence, the analytical characterization of the method was evaluated under optimal conditions exhibiting a linear range between 50 μM and 2.5 mM MA, a LOD of 16.7 μM, a LOQ of 50.0 μM and a sensitivity of 5.3 μA mM-1. Interestingly, two zones in the potential window were identified for the detection of MA, depending on its concentration in solution. Furthermore, the oxidative pathway of MA was elucidated employing liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry to understand the change in the electrochemical profile. Thereafter, the selectivity of the method towards MA in mixtures with other drugs of abuse as well as common adulterants/cutting agents was evaluated. Finally, the described method was employed for the analysis of MA in confiscated samples and compared with forensic methods, displaying its potential as a fast and easy-to-use method for on-site analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana-Maria Dragan
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Pasteur 6, 400349, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; A-Sense Lab, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2010, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marc Parrilla
- A-Sense Lab, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2010, Antwerp, Belgium; NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2010, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nick Sleegers
- A-Sense Lab, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2010, Antwerp, Belgium; NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2010, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Amorn Slosse
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Durme
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Alexander van Nuijs
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Radu Oprean
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Pasteur 6, 400349, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Cecilia Cristea
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Pasteur 6, 400349, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Karolien De Wael
- A-Sense Lab, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2010, Antwerp, Belgium; NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2010, Antwerp, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Joosten F, Parrilla M, van Nuijs AL, Ozoemena KI, De Wael K. Electrochemical detection of illicit drugs in oral fluid: potential for forensic drug testing. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.141309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
9
|
Molecular Insights and Clinical Outcomes of Drugs of Abuse Adulteration: New Trends and New Psychoactive Substances. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232314619. [PMID: 36498947 PMCID: PMC9739917 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Adulteration is a well-known practice of drug manufacturers at different stages of drug production. The intentional addition of active ingredients to adulterate the primary drug may enhance or mask pharmacological effects or may produce more potent drugs to increase the number of available doses and the dealer's profit. Adulterants found in different drugs change over time in response to different factors. A systematic literature search in PubMed and Scopus databases and official international organizations' websites according to PRISMA guidelines was performed. A total of 724 studies were initially screened, with 145 articles from PubMed and 462 from Scopus excluded according to the criteria described in the Method Section. The remaining 117 records were further assessed for eligibility to exclude articles without sufficient data. Finally, 79 studies were classified as "non-biological" (n = 35) or "biological" (n = 35 case reports; n = 9 case series) according to the samples investigated. Although the seized samples analyses revealed the presence of well-established adulterants such as levamisole for cocaine or paracetamol/acetaminophen for heroin, the reported data disclosed new adulteration practices, such as the use of NPS as cutting agents for classic drugs of abuse and other NPS. For example, heroin adulterated with synthetic cannabinoids or cocaine adulterated with fentanyl/fentalogues raised particular concern. Notably, adulterants play a role in some adverse effects commonly associated with the primary drug, such as levamisole-adulterated cocaine that may induce vasculitis via an autoimmune process. It is essential to constantly monitor adulterants due to their changing availability that may threaten drug consumers' health.
Collapse
|
10
|
Heroin detection in a droplet hosted in a 3D printed support at the miniaturized electrified liquid-liquid interface. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18615. [PMID: 36329050 PMCID: PMC9633610 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21689-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple sensing protocols for the detection of illicit drugs are needed. Electrochemical sensing is especially attractive in this respect, as its cost together with the analytical accuracy aspires to replace still frequently used colorimetric tests. In this work, we have shown that the interfacial transfer of protonated heroin can be followed at the electrified water-1,2-dichloroethane interface. We have comprehensively studied the interfacial behavior of heroin alone and in the presence of its major and abundant cutting agents, caffeine and paracetamol. To maximally increase developed sensing protocol applicability we have designed and 3D printed a platform requiring only a few microliters of the aqueous and the organic phase. The proposed sensing platform was equipped with a cavity hosting a short section of Ag/AgCl electrode, up to 20 µL of the aqueous phase and the end of the micropipette tip being used as a casing of a fused silica capillary having 25 µm as the internal pore diameter. The volume of the organic phase was equal to around 5 µL and was present inside the micropipette tip. We have shown that under optimized conditions heroin can be detected in the presence of caffeine and paracetamol existing in a sample with 10,000 times excess over the analyte of interest. The calculated limit of detection equal to 1.3 µM, linear dynamic range spanning to at least 50 µM, good reproducibility, and very low volume of needed sample is fully in line with forensic demands.
Collapse
|
11
|
Montiel NF, Parrilla M, Sleegers N, Van Durme F, van Nuijs AL, De Wael K. Electrochemical sensing of amphetamine-type stimulants (pre)-precursors to fight against the illicit production of synthetic drugs. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.141446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
|
12
|
A Multi − Site initiation reversible Addition − Fragmentation Chain − Transfer electrochemical cocaine sensing. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.107714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
13
|
Neven L, Barich H, Sleegers N, Cánovas R, Debruyne G, De Wael K. Development of a combi-electrosensor for the detection of phenol by combining photoelectrochemistry and square wave voltammetry. Anal Chim Acta 2022; 1206:339732. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2022.339732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
14
|
de Jong M, Van Echelpoel R, Langley AR, Eliaerts J, van den Berg J, De Wilde M, Somers N, Samyn N, De Wael K. Real-time electrochemical screening of cocaine in lab and field settings with automatic result generation. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1471-1481. [PMID: 35460207 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
This work presents the results of a novel application for the fast on-site screening of cocaine and its main cutting agents in suspicious and confiscated samples. The methodology behind the novel application consists of portable electrochemical detection coupled with a peak-recognition algorithm for automated result output generation, validated both in laboratory and field settings. Currently used field tests, predominantly colorimetric tests, are lacking accuracy, often giving false positive or negative results. This presses the need for alternative approaches to field testing. By combining portable electrochemical approaches with peak-recognition algorithms, an accuracy of 98.4% concerning the detection of cocaine was achieved on a set of 374 powder samples. In addition, the approach was tested on multiple 'smuggled', colored cocaine powders and cocaine mixtures in solid and liquid states, typically in matrices such as charcoal, syrup and clothing. Despite these attempts to hide cocaine, our approach succeeded in detecting cocaine during on-site screening scenarios. This feature presents an advantage over colorimetric and optical detection techniques, which can fail with colored sample matrices. This enhanced accuracy on smuggled samples will lead to increased efficiency in confiscation procedures in the field, thus significantly reducing societal economic and safety concerns and highlighting the potential for electrochemical approaches in on-the-spot identification of drugs of abuse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mats de Jong
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, A-Sense Lab, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Robin Van Echelpoel
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, A-Sense Lab, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Amelia R Langley
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, A-Sense Lab, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Joy Eliaerts
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jorrit van den Berg
- Team Illicit Drugs, The Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Mark De Wilde
- Douane en Accijnzen Antwerpen, FOD Financiën, Antwerpen, Belgium
| | - Norbert Somers
- Douane en Accijnzen Antwerpen, FOD Financiën, Antwerpen, Belgium
| | - Nele Samyn
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Karolien De Wael
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, A-Sense Lab, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Van Echelpoel R, Kranenburg RF, van Asten AC, De Wael K. Electrochemical detection of MDMA and 2C-B in ecstasy tablets using a selectivity enhancement strategy by in-situ derivatization. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
16
|
Neven L, Barich H, Pelmus M, Gorun S, De Wael K, Pelmuş M, Gorun SM. The Role of Singlet Oxygen, Superoxide, Hydroxide and Hydrogen Peroxide in the Photoelectrochemical Response of Phenols at a Supported Highly Fluorinated Zinc Phthalocyanine. ChemElectroChem 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202200108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liselotte Neven
- Universiteit Antwerpen Faculteit Wetenschappen Bioscience Engineering Groenenborgerlaan 171 2020 Antwerpen BELGIUM
| | - Hanan Barich
- Universiteit Antwerpen Faculteit Wetenschappen Bioscience Engineering Groenenborgerlaan 171 2020 Antwerpen BELGIUM
| | - Marius Pelmus
- Seton Hall University Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Center for Functional Materials UNITED STATES
| | - Sergiu Gorun
- Seton Hall University Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Center for Functional Materials UNITED STATES
| | - Karolien De Wael
- Universiteit Antwerpen Faculteit Wetenschappen Bioscience Engineering BELGIUM
| | - Marius Pelmuş
- Seton Hall University Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Center for Functional Materials UNITED STATES
| | - Segiu M. Gorun
- Seton Hall University Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Center for Functional Materials UNITED STATES
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Emerging trends in point-of-care sensors for illicit drugs analysis. Talanta 2022; 238:123048. [PMID: 34801905 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.123048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Consumption of illicit narcotic drugs and fatal or criminal activities under their influence has become an utmost concern worldwide. These drugs influence an individual's feelings, perceptions, and emotions by altering the state of consciousness and thus can result in serious safety breaches at critical workplaces. Point-of-care drug-testing devices have become the need-of-the-hour for many sections such as the law enforcement agencies, the workplaces, etc. for safety and security. This review focuses on the recent progress on various electrochemical and optical nanosensors developed for the analysis of the most common illicit drugs (or their metabolites) such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cocaine (COC), opioids (OPs), amphetamines & methamphetamine, and benzodiazepine (BZDs). The paper also highlights the sensitivity and selectivity of various sensing modalities along with evolving parameters such as real-time monitoring and measurement via a smart user interface. An overall outlook of recent technological advances in point of care (POC) devices and guided insights and directions for future research is presented.
Collapse
|
18
|
|
19
|
Barich H, Cánovas R, De Wael K. Electrochemical identification of hazardous phenols and their complex mixtures in real samples using unmodified screen-printed electrodes. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
|
20
|
Dragan AM, Parrilla M, Feier B, Oprean R, Cristea C, De Wael K. Analytical techniques for the detection of amphetamine-type substances in different matrices: A comprehensive review. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
|
21
|
Shoara AA, Churcher ZR, Slavkovic S, Johnson PE. Weak Binding of Levamisole by the Cocaine-Binding Aptamer Does Not Interfere with an Aptamer-Based Detection Assay. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:24209-24217. [PMID: 34568699 PMCID: PMC8459413 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c03781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Levamisole is a common and harmful adulterant of street samples of cocaine and can cause electrochemical tests for cocaine to give false negative results. To see if levamisole would interfere with aptamer-based bioassays, we analyzed the binding of levamisole to the cocaine-binding DNA aptamer. At low aptamer concentrations (0.5 to 20 μM) using isothermal titration calorimetry methods and thermal stability measurements, no binding of levamisole to the cocaine-binding aptamer was observed. At higher levamisole concentrations (500 μM), weak binding to the cocaine-binding aptamer was detected using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy chemical shift perturbations. NMR-detected titrations show that levamisole binding is competitive with cocaine binding, indicating that both ligands share a common binding site. Finally, we show that the presence of levamisole does not interfere with the photochrome aptamer switch binding assay for cocaine. We conclude that assays using low concentrations of cocaine, and consequently low concentration of levamisole as an adulterant, should be unaffected by the weak binding of levamisole.
Collapse
|
22
|
Unlocking the full potential of voltammetric data analysis: A novel peak recognition approach for (bio)analytical applications. Talanta 2021; 233:122605. [PMID: 34215092 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Bridging the gap between complex signal data output and clear interpretation by non-expert end-users is a major challenge many scientists face when converting their scientific technology into a real-life application. Currently, pattern recognition algorithms are the most frequently encountered signal data interpretation algorithms to close this gap, not in the least because of their straight-forward implementation via convenient software packages. Paradoxically, just because their implementation is so straight-forward, it becomes cumbersome to integrate the expert's domain-specific knowledge. In this work, a novel signal data interpretation approach is presented that uses this domain-specific knowledge as its fundament, thereby fully exploiting the unique expertise of the scientist. The new approach applies data preprocessing in an innovative way that transcends its usual purpose and is easy to translate into a software application. Multiple case studies illustrate the straight-forward application of the novel approach. Ultimately, the approach is highly suited for integration in various (bio)analytical applications that require interpretation of signal data.
Collapse
|
23
|
Personal Doses of Cocaine and Coca Paste are Adulterated in Cartagena de Indias (Colombia). ScientificWorldJournal 2021; 2021:5562315. [PMID: 34121949 PMCID: PMC8172318 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5562315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge of drug composition consumed on the streets and the identification and quantification of their adulterants is essential for understanding unexpected side effects, tracking routes, and drug profiling. Therefore, this work aimed to determine the purity and to identify and quantify the main adulterants found in personal doses of cocaine (perico) and coca paste (bazuco) in Cartagena de Indias (Colombia). The data collected in this study describe a first attempt to introduce the qualitative and quantitative analyses of adulterants present in street drugs in Cartagena de Indias to improve surveillance. Through gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), the purity and adulterants were quantified in 45 personal doses of cocaine powder and coca paste. 100% of the personal doses in the city were adulterated; caffeine, phenacetin, and levamisole were the main adulterants identified in cocaine. Besides the above, lidocaine was also found in coca paste. The purity of cocaine varied from 8% to almost 70%, with caffeine ranging from 6% to 42%. In the case of coca paste, the maximum content of cocaine found was 60%, while some samples contained as little as 14%. The results are consistent with other research in terms of the widespread use of caffeine as an adulterant, but they also follow the growing trend of the use of levamisole and phenacetin. The wide range of cocaine content in samples sold in the illicit market could cause undesirable effects on cocaine users who do not know the exact intended dose for consumption; so, this study intends to make these results available not only to academic, public health, and national security agencies but also to tourists entering Cartagena de Indias, so that they are aware of what they are consuming and the risks to which they are exposed.
Collapse
|
24
|
Rocha RG, Ribeiro JS, Santana MHP, Richter EM, Muñoz RAA. 3D-printing for forensic chemistry: voltammetric determination of cocaine on additively manufactured graphene-polylactic acid electrodes. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2021; 13:1788-1794. [PMID: 33885677 DOI: 10.1039/d1ay00181g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Cocaine is probably one of the most trafficked illicit drugs in the world. For this reason, police forces require fast, selective, and sensitive methods for cocaine detection at crime scenes. Taking benefit of additive manufacturing, we demonstrate that 3D-printed graphene-polylactic acid (G-PLA) electrodes using the affordable fused deposition modelling technique can identify and quantify cocaine in seized drugs. The detection of cocaine based on its electrochemical oxidation on such electrodes was dramatically improved after an electrochemical surface treatment that generates reduced graphene oxide (anodic followed by a cathodic treatment). Square-wave voltammetric determination of cocaine was achieved in the concentration range between 20 and 100 μmol L-1, with a detection limit of 6 μmol L-1, and free from the interference of paracetamol, caffeine, phenacetin, lidocaine, benzocaine and levamisole, which are common adulterants found in seized drugs. The analytical characteristics obtained using 3D-printed G-PLA electrodes were comparable with those of previously reported electrochemical sensors, but presented the inherent advantages of the 3D-printing technology that enables low-cost, reproducible, and large-scale production of such electrodes in remote areas combined with the use of an environmentally-friendly biopolymer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel G Rocha
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Uberlândia, 38408-100 Uberlândia, MG, Brazil.
| | - Julia S Ribeiro
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Uberlândia, 38408-100 Uberlândia, MG, Brazil.
| | - Mário H P Santana
- Unidade Técnico-Científica, Superintendência Regional da Polícia Federal em MG, 38408-680, Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Eduardo M Richter
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Uberlândia, 38408-100 Uberlândia, MG, Brazil.
| | - Rodrigo A A Muñoz
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Uberlândia, 38408-100 Uberlândia, MG, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Dragan AM, Truta FM, Tertis M, Florea A, Schram J, Cernat A, Feier B, De Wael K, Cristea C, Oprean R. Electrochemical Fingerprints of Illicit Drugs on Graphene and Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes. Front Chem 2021; 9:641147. [PMID: 33796506 PMCID: PMC8007852 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.641147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Illicit drugs use and abuse remains an increasing challenge for worldwide authorities and, therefore, it is important to have accurate methods to detect them in seized samples, biological fluids and wastewaters. They are recently classified as the latest group of emerging pollutants as their consumption increased tremendously in recent years. Nanomaterials have gained much attention over the last decade in the development of sensors for a myriad of applications. The applicability of these nanomaterials, functionalized or not, significantly increases and it is therefore highly suitable for use in the detection of illicit drugs. We have assessed the suitability of various nanoplatforms, such as graphene (GPH), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) for the electrochemical detection of illicit drugs. GPH and MWCNTs were chosen as the most suitable platforms and cocaine, 3,4-methylendioxymethamfetamine (MDMA), 3-methylmethcathinone (MMC) and α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP) were tested. Due to the hydrophobicity of the nanomaterials-based platforms which led to low signals, two strategies were followed namely, pretreatment of the electrodes in sulfuric acid by cyclic voltammetry and addition of Tween 20 to the detection buffer. Both strategies led to an increase in the oxidation signal of illicit drugs. Binary mixtures of illicit drugs with common adulterants found in street samples were also investigated. The proposed strategies allowed the sensitive detection of illicit drugs in the presence of most adulterants. The suitability of the proposed sensors for the detection of illicit drugs in spiked wastewaters was finally assessed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana-Maria Dragan
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Florina Maria Truta
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Mihaela Tertis
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Anca Florea
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Jonas Schram
- Axes Research Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Andreea Cernat
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Bogdan Feier
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Karolien De Wael
- Axes Research Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Cecilia Cristea
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Radu Oprean
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Schram J, Parrilla M, Sleegers N, Van Durme F, van den Berg J, van Nuijs ALN, De Wael K. Electrochemical profiling and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry characterization of synthetic cathinones: From methodology to detection in forensic samples. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1282-1294. [PMID: 33624933 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of new psychoactive drugs in the market demands rapid and accurate tools for the on-site classification of illegal and legal compounds with similar structures. Herein, a novel method for the classification of synthetic cathinones (SCs) is presented based on their electrochemical profile. First, the electrochemical profile of five common SC (i.e., mephedrone, ethcathinone, methylone, butylone, and 4-chloro-alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone) is collected to build calibration curves using square wave voltammetry on graphite screen-printed electrodes (SPEs). Second, the elucidation of the oxidation pathways, obtained by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry, allows the pairing of the oxidation products to the SC electrochemical profile, providing a selective and robust classification. Additionally, the effect of common adulterants and illicit drugs on the electrochemical profile of the SC is explored. Interestingly, a cathodic pretreatment of the SPE allows the selective detection of each SC in presence of electroactive adulterants. Finally, the electrochemical approach is validated with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry by analyzing 26 confiscated samples from seizures and illegal webshops. Overall, the electrochemical method exhibits a successful classification of SC including structural derivatives, a crucial attribute in an ever-diversifying drug market.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Schram
- AXES Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marc Parrilla
- AXES Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nick Sleegers
- AXES Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Durme
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jorrit van den Berg
- Team Illicit Drugs, The Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | | | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
|
28
|
Truta F, Florea A, Cernat A, Tertis M, Hosu O, de Wael K, Cristea C. Tackling the Problem of Sensing Commonly Abused Drugs Through Nanomaterials and (Bio)Recognition Approaches. Front Chem 2020; 8:561638. [PMID: 33330355 PMCID: PMC7672198 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.561638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We summarize herein the literature in the last decade, involving the use of nanomaterials and various (bio)recognition elements, such as antibodies, aptamers and molecularly imprinted polymers, for the development of sensitive and selective (bio)sensors for illicit drugs with a focus on electrochemical transduction systems. The use and abuse of illicit drugs remains an increasing challenge for worldwide authorities and, therefore, it is important to have accurate methods to detect them in seized samples, biological fluids and wastewaters. They are recently classified as the latest group of “emerging pollutants,” as their consumption has increased tremendously in recent years. Nanomaterials, antibodies, aptamers and molecularly imprinted polymers have gained much attention over the last decade in the development of (bio)sensors for a myriad of applications. The applicability of these (nano)materials, functionalized or not, has significantly increased, and are therefore highly suitable for use in the detection of drugs. Lately, such functionalized nanoscale materials have assisted in the detection of illicit drugs fingerprints, providing large surface area, functional groups and unique properties that facilitate sensitive and selective sensing. The review discusses the types of commonly abused drugs and their toxicological implications, classification of functionalized nanomaterials (graphene, carbon nanotubes), their fabrication, and their application on real samples in different fields of forensic science. Biosensors for drugs of abuse from the last decade's literature are then exemplified. It also offers insights into the prospects and challenges of bringing the functionalized nanobased technology to the end user in the laboratories or in-field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florina Truta
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Anca Florea
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Andreea Cernat
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Mihaela Tertis
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Oana Hosu
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Karolien de Wael
- Antwerp X-ray Analysis, Electrochemistry and Speciation Research Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Cecilia Cristea
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Teymourian H, Parrilla M, Sempionatto JR, Montiel NF, Barfidokht A, Van Echelpoel R, De Wael K, Wang J. Wearable Electrochemical Sensors for the Monitoring and Screening of Drugs. ACS Sens 2020; 5:2679-2700. [PMID: 32822166 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Wearable electrochemical sensors capable of noninvasive monitoring of chemical markers represent a rapidly emerging digital-health technology. Recent advances toward wearable continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) systems have ignited tremendous interest in expanding such sensor technology to other important fields. This article reviews for the first time wearable electrochemical sensors for monitoring therapeutic drugs and drugs of abuse. This rapidly emerging class of drug-sensing wearable devices addresses the growing demand for personalized medicine, toward improved therapeutic outcomes while minimizing the side effects of drugs and the related medical expenses. Continuous, noninvasive monitoring of therapeutic drugs within bodily fluids empowers clinicians and patients to correlate the pharmacokinetic properties with optimal outcomes by realizing patient-specific dose regulation and tracking dynamic changes in pharmacokinetics behavior while assuring the medication adherence of patients. Furthermore, wearable electrochemical drug monitoring devices can also serve as powerful screening tools in the hands of law enforcement agents to combat drug trafficking and support on-site forensic investigations. The review covers various wearable form factors developed for noninvasive monitoring of therapeutic drugs in different body fluids and toward on-site screening of drugs of abuse. The future prospects of such wearable drug monitoring devices are presented with the ultimate goals of introducing accurate real-time drug monitoring protocols and autonomous closed-loop platforms toward precise dose regulation and optimal therapeutic outcomes. Finally, current unmet challenges and existing gaps are discussed for motivating future technological innovations regarding personalized therapy. The current pace of developments and the tremendous market opportunities for such wearable drug monitoring platforms are expected to drive intense future research and commercialization efforts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hazhir Teymourian
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Marc Parrilla
- AXES Research Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Juliane R. Sempionatto
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Noelia Felipe Montiel
- AXES Research Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Abbas Barfidokht
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Robin Van Echelpoel
- AXES Research Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Research Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
de Jong M, Florea A, Daems D, Van Loon J, Samyn N, De Wael K. Electrochemical analysis of speedball-like polydrug samples. Analyst 2020; 145:6091-6096. [PMID: 32840270 DOI: 10.1039/d0an01097a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Increasing global production, trafficking and consumption of drugs of abuse is an emerging threat to people's health and safety. Electrochemical approaches have been proved to be useful for on-site analysis of drugs of abuse. However, less attention has been focused on the analysis of polydrug samples, even though these samples pose severe health concerns, especially when stimulants and depressants are combined, as is the case of speedball, a mixture of cocaine and heroin. In this work, we provide solutions for the selective detection of cocaine (stimulant) in polydrug samples adulterated with heroin and codeine (depressants). The presence of either one of these compounds in cocaine street samples leads to an overlap with the cocaine signal in square-wave voltammetry measurements at unmodified carbon screen-printed electrodes, leading to inconclusive screening results in the field. The provided solutions to this problem consist of two parallel approaches: (i) cathodic pretreatment of the carbon screen-printed electrode surface prior to measurement under both alkaline and neutral conditions and (ii) electropolymerization of orthophenylenediamine on graphene modified carbon screen-printed electrodes prior to measurement under neutral conditions. Both strategies allow simultaneous detection of cocaine and heroin in speedball samples as well as simultaneous detection of cocaine and codeine. Implementing these strategies in portable devices holds great potential for significantly improved accuracy of on-site cocaine screening in polydrug samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mats de Jong
- AXES Research Group, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
De Rycke E, Stove C, Dubruel P, De Saeger S, Beloglazova N. Recent developments in electrochemical detection of illicit drugs in diverse matrices. Biosens Bioelectron 2020; 169:112579. [PMID: 32947080 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Drug abuse is a global problem, requiring an interdisciplinary approach. Discovery, production, trafficking, and consumption of illicit drugs have been constantly growing, leading to heavy consequences for environment, human health, and society in general. Therefore, an urgent need for rapid, sensitive, portable and easy-to-operate detection methods for numerous drugs of interest in diverse matrices, from police samples, biological fluids and hair to sewage water has risen. Electrochemical sensors are promising alternatives to chromatography and spectrometry. Last decades, electrochemical sensing of illegal drugs has experienced a very significant growth, driven by improved transducers and signal amplifiers helping to improve the sensitivity and selectivity. The present review summarizes recent advances (last 10 years) in electrochemical detection of the most prevailing illicit drugs (such as cocaine, heroin, and (meth)amphetamine), their precursors and derivatives in different matrices. Various electrochemical sensors making use of different transducers with their (dis)advantages were discussed, and their sensitivity and applicability were critically compared. In those cases where natural or synthetic recognition elements were included in the sensing system to increase specificity, selected recognition elements, their immobilization, working conditions, and analytical performance were discussed. Finally, an outlook is presented with suggestions and recommendations for future developments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Esther De Rycke
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; Polymer Chemistry & Biomaterials Research Group, Department of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281, Building S4-Bis, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Peter Dubruel
- Polymer Chemistry & Biomaterials Research Group, Department of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281, Building S4-Bis, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Natalia Beloglazova
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; Nanotechnology Education and Research Center, South Ural State University, 454080 Chelyabinsk, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Schram J, Parrilla M, Sleegers N, Samyn N, Bijvoets SM, Heerschop MWJ, van Nuijs ALN, De Wael K. Identifying Electrochemical Fingerprints of Ketamine with Voltammetry and Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry for Its Detection in Seized Samples. Anal Chem 2020; 92:13485-13492. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Schram
- AXES Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
- NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marc Parrilla
- AXES Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
- NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nick Sleegers
- AXES Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
- NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nele Samyn
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology, Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Stefan M. Bijvoets
- Dutch Customs Laboratory, Kingsfordweg 1, Amsterdam, 1043 GN, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Group, Bioscience Engineering Department, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
- NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Kranenburg RF, Verduin J, Weesepoel Y, Alewijn M, Heerschop M, Koomen G, Keizers P, Bakker F, Wallace F, van Esch A, Hulsbergen A, van Asten AC. Rapid and robust on-scene detection of cocaine in street samples using a handheld near-infrared spectrometer and machine learning algorithms. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:1404-1418. [PMID: 32638519 PMCID: PMC7590077 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
On‐scene drug detection is an increasingly significant challenge due to the fast‐changing drug market as well as the risk of exposure to potent drug substances. Conventional colorimetric cocaine tests involve handling of the unknown material and are prone to false‐positive reactions on common pharmaceuticals used as cutting agents. This study demonstrates the novel application of 740–1070 nm small‐wavelength‐range near‐infrared (NIR) spectroscopy to confidently detect cocaine in case samples. Multistage machine learning algorithms are used to exploit the limited spectral features and predict not only the presence of cocaine but also the concentration and sample composition. A model based on more than 10,000 spectra from case samples yielded 97% true‐positive and 98% true‐negative results. The practical applicability is shown in more than 100 case samples not included in the model design. One of the most exciting aspects of this on‐scene approach is that the model can almost instantly adapt to changes in the illicit‐drug market by updating metadata with results from subsequent confirmatory laboratory analyses. These results demonstrate that advanced machine learning strategies applied on limited‐range NIR spectra from economic handheld sensors can be a valuable procedure for rapid on‐site detection of illicit substances by investigating officers. In addition to forensics, this interesting approach could be beneficial for screening and classification applications in the pharmaceutical, food‐safety, and environmental domains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruben F Kranenburg
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joshka Verduin
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Yannick Weesepoel
- Wageningen Food Safety Research part of Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Martin Alewijn
- Wageningen Food Safety Research part of Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | | | - Ger Koomen
- Dutch Customs Laboratory, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Peter Keizers
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Frank Bakker
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Fionn Wallace
- Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI), Den Haag, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Arian C van Asten
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
|
35
|
Moro G, Barich H, Driesen K, Felipe Montiel N, Neven L, Domingues Mendonça C, Thiruvottriyur Shanmugam S, Daems E, De Wael K. Unlocking the full power of electrochemical fingerprinting for on-site sensing applications. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:5955-5968. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02584-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
36
|
de Jong M, Sleegers N, Florea A, Van Loon J, van Nuijs ALN, Samyn N, De Wael K. Unraveling the Mechanisms Behind the Complete Suppression of Cocaine Electrochemical Signals by Chlorpromazine, Promethazine, Procaine, and Dextromethorphan. Anal Chem 2019; 91:15453-15460. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b03128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mats de Jong
- AXES Research Group, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nick Sleegers
- AXES Research Group, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Anca Florea
- AXES Research Group, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Joren Van Loon
- AXES Research Group, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
- Product Development Research Group, University of Antwerp, Ambtmanstraat 1, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | | | - Nele Samyn
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology, Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Research Group, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Florea A, Cowen T, Piletsky S, De Wael K. Electrochemical sensing of cocaine in real samples based on electrodeposited biomimetic affinity ligands. Analyst 2019; 144:4639-4646. [PMID: 31250860 DOI: 10.1039/c9an00618d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A selective electrochemical sensor for direct detection of cocaine was developed based on molecularly imprinted polymers electropolymerized onto graphene-modified electrodes. Palladium nanoparticles were integrated in the sensing layer for the benefit of enhancing the communication between the imprinted sites and the electrode and improving their homogeneous distribution. The molecularly imprinted polymer was synthesized by cyclic voltammetry using p-aminobenzoic acid as a high affinity monomer selected by computational modeling, and cocaine as a template molecule. Experimental parameters related to the electrochemical deposition of palladium nanoparticles, pH, composition of the electropolymerization mixture, extraction and rebinding conditions were studied and optimized. Under optimized conditions, the oxidation peak current varied linearly with cocaine concentration in the range of 100-500 μM, with a detection limit of 50 μM (RSD 0.71%, n = 3). The molecularly imprinted sensor was able to detect cocaine in saliva and river water with good recoveries after sample pretreatment and was successfully applied for screening real street samples for cocaine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anca Florea
- University of Antwerp, Department of Chemistry, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020, Belgium.
| | - Todd Cowen
- University of Leicester, Department of Chemistry, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Sergey Piletsky
- University of Leicester, Department of Chemistry, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Karolien De Wael
- University of Antwerp, Department of Chemistry, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Florea A, Schram J, de Jong M, Eliaerts J, Van Durme F, Kaur B, Samyn N, De Wael K. Electrochemical Strategies for Adulterated Heroin Samples. Anal Chem 2019; 91:7920-7928. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b01796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anca Florea
- AXES Research
Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jonas Schram
- AXES Research
Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Mats de Jong
- AXES Research
Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Joy Eliaerts
- AXES Research
Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
- National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology, Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Durme
- National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology, Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Balwinder Kaur
- AXES Research
Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nele Samyn
- National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology, Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Research
Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
González-Mariño I, Estévez-Danta A, Rodil R, Da Silva KM, Sodré FF, Cela R, Quintana JB. Profiling cocaine residues and pyrolytic products in wastewater by mixed-mode liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1018-1027. [PMID: 30891957 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This work provides a new analytical method for the determination of cocaine, its metabolites benzoylecgonine and cocaethylene, the pyrolytic products anhydroecgonine and anhydroecgonine methyl ester, and the pharmaceutical levamisole in wastewater. Samples were solid-phase extracted and extracts analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry using, for the first time in the illicit drug field, a stationary phase that combines reversed-phase and weak cation-exchange functionalities. The overall method performance was satisfactory, with limits of detection below 1 ng/L, relative standard deviations below 21%, and percentages of recovery between 93% and 121%. Analysis of 24-hour composite raw wastewater samples collected in Santiago de Compostela (Spain) and Brasilia (Brazil) highlighted benzoylecgonine as the compound showing the highest population-normalized mass loads (300-1000 mg/day/1000 inhabitants). In Brasilia, cocaine and levamisole loads underwent an upsurge on Sunday, indicating a high consumption, and likely a direct disposal, of cocaine powder on this day. Conversely, the pyrolytic product resulting from the smoke of crack, anhydroecgonine methyl ester, and its metabolite anhydroecgonine were relatively stable over the four days, agreeing with a non-recreational-associated use of crack.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Iria González-Mariño
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Andrea Estévez-Danta
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Rosario Rodil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | | | | | - Rafael Cela
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Rocha RG, Stefano JS, Arantes IVS, Ribeiro MMAC, Santana MHP, Richter EM, Munoz RAA. Simple Strategy for Selective Determination of Levamisole in Seized Cocaine and Pharmaceutical Samples Using Disposable Screen-printed Electrodes. ELECTROANAL 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201800716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel G. Rocha
- Federal University of Uberlandia; Institute of Chemistry; Uberlandia, Minas Gerais Brazil 38400-092
| | - Jéssica S. Stefano
- Federal University of Uberlandia; Institute of Chemistry; Uberlandia, Minas Gerais Brazil 38400-092
| | - Iana V. S. Arantes
- Federal University of Uberlandia; Institute of Chemistry; Uberlandia, Minas Gerais Brazil 38400-092
| | | | - Mario H. P. Santana
- Technical and Scientific Unit - Regional Superintendence of Brazilian Federal Police in Minas Gerais; 38408-680 Uberlandia, MG Brazil
| | - Eduardo M. Richter
- Federal University of Uberlandia; Institute of Chemistry; Uberlandia, Minas Gerais Brazil 38400-092
| | - Rodrigo A. A. Munoz
- Federal University of Uberlandia; Institute of Chemistry; Uberlandia, Minas Gerais Brazil 38400-092
| |
Collapse
|