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Kristiansen SM, Leinaas HP, van Gestel CAM, Borgå K. Thermal adaptation affects the temperature-dependent toxicity of the insecticide imidacloprid to soil invertebrates. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 944:173845. [PMID: 38871314 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Terrestrial ectotherms are vulnerable to climate change since their biological rates depend on the ambient temperature. As temperature may interact with toxicant exposure, climate change may cause unpredictable responses to toxic stress. A population's thermal adaptation will impact its response to temperature change, but also to interactive effects from temperature and toxicants, but these effects are still not fully understood. Here, we assessed the combined effects of exposure to the insecticide imidacloprid across the temperatures 10-25 °C of two populations of the Collembola Hypogastrura viatica (Tullberg, 1872), by determining their responses in multiple life history traits. The con-specific populations differ considerably in thermal adaptations; one (arctic) is a temperature generalist, while the other (temperate) is a warm-adapted specialist. For both populations, the sub-lethal concentrations of imidacloprid became lethal with increasing temperature. Although the thermal maximum is higher for the warm-adapted population, the reduction in survival was stronger. Growth was reduced by imidacloprid in a temperature-dependent manner, but only at the adult life stage. The decrease in adult body size combined with the absence of an effect on the age at first reproduction suggests a selection on the timing of maturation. Egg production was reduced by imidacloprid in both populations, but the negative effect was only dependent on temperature in the warm-adapted population, with no effect at 10 °C, and decreases of 41 % at 15 °C, and 74 % at 20 °C. For several key traits, the population best adapted to utilize high temperatures was also the most sensitive to toxic stress at higher temperatures. It could be that by allocating more energy to faster growth, development, and reproduction at higher temperatures, the population had less energy for maintenance, making it more sensitive to toxic stress. Our findings demonstrate the need to take into account a population's thermal adaptation when assessing the interactive effects between temperature and other stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silje M Kristiansen
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Blindernvn 31, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Hans P Leinaas
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Blindernvn 31, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Cornelis A M van Gestel
- Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment (A-LIFE), Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boolelaan 1108, 1081, HZ, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Katrine Borgå
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Blindernvn 31, 0316 Oslo, Norway
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Xie J, Wang T, Zhang P, Zhang H, Wang H, Wang K, Zhang M, Xu J. Effects of multiple stressors on freshwater food webs: Evidence from a mesocosm experiment. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 348:123819. [PMID: 38508368 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Natural and anthropogenic pressures exert influence on ecosystem structure and function by affecting the physiology and behavior of organisms, as well as the trophic interactions within assemblages. Therefore, understanding how multiple stressors affect aquatic ecosystems can improve our ability to manage and protect these ecosystems and contribute to understanding fundamental ecological principles. Here, we conducted a mesocosm experiment to ascertain the individual and combined effects of multiple stressors on trophic interactions within species in freshwater ecosystems. Furthermore, we investigated how species respond to such changes by adapting their food resources. To mimic a realistic food web, we selected fish and shrimp as top predators, gastropods, zooplankton and zoobenthos as intermediate consumers, with producers (macrophytes, periphyton and phytoplankton) and detritus as basal resources. Twelve different treatments included a control, nutrient loading only, herbicide exposure only, and a combination of nutrient loading and herbicide exposure, each replicated under ambient temperature, constant warming and multiple heat waves to simulate environmental stressors. Our results demonstrated that antagonistic interactions between environmental stressors were widespread in trophic interactions, with a more pronounced and less intense impact observed for the high trophic level species. The responses of freshwater communities to environmental stressors are complex, involving direct effects on individual species as well as indirect effects through species interactions. Moreover, our results confirmed that the combinations of stressors, but not individual stressors, led to a shift to herbivory in top predators, indicating that multiple stressors can be more detrimental to organisms than individual stressors alone. These findings elucidate how changes in the resource utilization of species induced by environmental stressors can potentially influence species interactions and the structural dynamics of food webs in freshwater ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Xie
- Key Laboratory of Lake and Watershed Science for Water Security, Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, PR China.
| | - Tao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Lake and Watershed Science for Water Security, Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, PR China.
| | - Peiyu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Lake and Watershed Science for Water Security, Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.
| | - Huan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Lake and Watershed Science for Water Security, Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.
| | - Huan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Lake and Watershed Science for Water Security, Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou, PR China.
| | - Kang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Lake and Watershed Science for Water Security, Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, PR China.
| | - Min Zhang
- College of Fisheries, Hubei Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Pond Aquaculture, Freshwater Aquaculture Collaborative Innovation Centre of Hubei Province, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, PR China.
| | - Jun Xu
- Key Laboratory of Lake and Watershed Science for Water Security, Key Laboratory of Breeding Biotechnology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.
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Mangold-Döring A, Baas J, van den Brink PJ, Focks A, van Nes EH. Toxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic Model to Assess Thermal Stress. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:21029-21037. [PMID: 38062939 PMCID: PMC10734255 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c05079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
Temperature is a crucial environmental factor affecting the distribution and performance of ectothermic organisms. This study introduces a new temperature damage model to interpret their thermal stress. Inspired by the ecotoxicological damage model in the General Unified Threshold model for Survival (GUTS) framework, the temperature damage model assumes that damage depends on the balance between temperature-dependent accumulation and constant repair. Mortality due to temperature stress is driven by the damage level exceeding a threshold. Model calibration showed a good agreement with the measured survival of Gammarus pulex exposed to different constant temperatures. Further, model simulations, including constant temperatures, daily temperature fluctuations, and heatwaves, demonstrated the model's ability to predict temperature effects for various environmental scenarios. With this, the present study contributes to the mechanistic understanding of temperature as a single stressor while facilitating the incorporation of temperature as an additional stressor alongside chemicals in mechanistic multistressor effect models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Mangold-Döring
- Department
of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Wageningen
Environmental Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Baas
- Wageningen
Environmental Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Paul J. van den Brink
- Department
of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Wageningen
Environmental Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Andreas Focks
- System
Science Group/Institute of Mathematics, Osnabrück University, Barbarastrasse 12, D-49076 Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Egbert H. van Nes
- Department
of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Wang Y, Shen J, Li X, Lang H, Zhang L, Fang H, Yu Y. Higher temperature and daily fluctuations aggravate clothianidin toxicity towards Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166655. [PMID: 37647951 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
In nature, aquatic organisms may suffer from chemical pollution, together with thermal stress resulted from global warming. However, limited information is available on the combined effects of pesticide with climate change on aquatic organisms. In this study, the acute toxicity of clothianidin to Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri as well as its effect on the induction of oxidative stress under both constant temperature and daily temperature fluctuation (DTF) regimes was investigated. Results showed that clothianidin exhibited the minimal toxicity to L. hoffmeisteri at 25 °C, which was magnified by both increased or decreased temperatures and 10 °C DTF. At different temperatures (15 °C, 25 °C and 35 °C), clothianidin exposure led to the elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and activated the antioxidant enzymes to resist against the oxidative stress. However, the antioxidant response induced by clothianidin was overwhelmed at high temperature as evidenced by decreased glutathione (GSH) content. Significant elevation of catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) activities but depletion of GSH was also observed in worms treated with clothianidin under DTF after 24 h. The results indicated that high temperature and DTF could aggravate the clothianidin-induced oxidative stress. Moreover, the critical thermal maximum (CTmax) of the worms decreased with the increasing clothianidin concentrations, suggesting that exposure to clothianidin could reduce the heat tolerance of L. hoffmeisteri. Our work highlights the crucial importance to integrate temperature changes into risk assessment of pesticides under global warming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingnan Wang
- Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, the Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jiatao Shen
- Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, the Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xin Li
- Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, the Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Hongbin Lang
- Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, the Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Luqing Zhang
- Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, the Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Hua Fang
- Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, the Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yunlong Yu
- Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, the Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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Zong M, Yu C, Li J, Sun D, Wang J, Mo Z, Qin C, Yang D, Zhang Z, Zeng Q, Li C, Ma K, Wan H, Li J, He S. Redox and Near-Infrared Light-Responsive Nanoplatform for Enhanced Pesticide Delivery and Pest Control in Rice: Construction, Efficacy, and Potential Mechanisms. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:41351-41361. [PMID: 37584154 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c08413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
The brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stål), is a major rice pest in various Asian countries, causing significant negative impacts on rice yield and quality. In this study, we developed a novel nanoplatform (NIT@MON@CuS) for pesticide delivery that responds to redox and near-infrared light stimuli. The nanoplatform consisted of CuS nanoparticles with mesoporous organic silica (MON), loaded with nitenpyram (NIT). With an average size of 190 nm and a loading efficiency of 22%, NIT@MON@CuS exhibited remarkable thermal response in the near-infrared region, demonstrating excellent photothermal conversion ability and stability. In vitro release kinetics demonstrated the rapid release of nitenpyram under near-infrared light and glutathione conditions, facilitating a satisfactory temperature increase and accelerated drug release. The NIT@MON@CuS-treated group exhibited a higher mortality of N. lugens, increasing from 62 to 88% compared to the group treated with nitenpyram technical after 96 h. Bioassay revealed that NIT@MON@CuS significantly enhanced nitenpyram toxicity by more than 1.4-fold against both laboratory insecticide-resistant and field strains of N. lugens. Furthermore, RT-qPCR results demonstrated that MON@CuS had the capability to reduce P450 gene expression, thereby improving the sensitivity of N. lugens to insecticides. These findings suggest that MON@CuS holds great potential as an intelligent pest control platform, offering a sustainable and efficient approach to protect crops against pests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mao Zong
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Chang Yu
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Jiaqing Li
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Dan Sun
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Jiayin Wang
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Ziyao Mo
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Chuwei Qin
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Disi Yang
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Zhaoyang Zhang
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Qinghong Zeng
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Chengyue Li
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Kangsheng Ma
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Hu Wan
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Jianhong Li
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Shun He
- The Center of Crop Nanobiotechnology, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, No. 1 Shizishan Street, Wuhan 430074, China
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Betz-Koch S, Jacobs B, Oehlmann J, Ratz D, Reutter C, Wick A, Oetken M. Pesticide dynamics in three small agricultural creeks in Hesse, Germany. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15650. [PMID: 37483984 PMCID: PMC10361075 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Due to their high biodiversity, small water bodies play an important role for freshwater ecosystems. Nonetheless, systematic pesticide monitoring in small creeks with a catchment <30 km2 is rarely conducted. Methods In this study, event-driven water samples were taken from May until November 2017 and March until July 2018 after 20 rain events at three sampling sites with catchment areas of <27 km2 in the Wetterau, a region with intensive agriculture in Southern Hesse, Germany. Additionally, enriched extracts of the native water samples from the campaign in 2018 were used for the Microtox assay to determine baseline toxicity to invertebrates over time and sum of toxic units (STU) were calculated to compare the potential toxicity of the samples. Results Overall, 37 pesticides and 17 transformation products were found, whereby the herbicide metamitron (79 µg/L) showed the highest concentration. Regularly, pesticide concentrations peaked at the time of the highest water level within each sampling event. Within each sampling event maximum pesticide concentration was mostly reached in water samples taken during the first two hours. The sum of the time-weighted mean concentration values of all pesticides was between 2.0 µg/L and 7.2 µg/L, whereby the measured concentrations exceeded their regulatory acceptable concentration (RAC) at 55% of all sampling events for at least one pesticide. The mean EC50 values varied between 28.6 ± 13.1 to 41.3 ± 12.1 REF (relative enrichment factor). The results indicated that several samples caused baseline toxicity, whereby the highest activity was measured at the time of highest water levels and pesticides concentrations, and then steadily decreased in parallel with the water level. Median STUs of invertebrates ranged from -2.10 to -3.91, of algae/aquatic plants from -0.79 to -1.84 and of fish from -2.47 to -4.24. For one of the three sampling sites, a significant linear correlation between baseline toxicity and STUinvertebratewas found (r2 = 0.48). Conclusion The results of the present study suggest that (1) current pesticide monitoring programs underestimate risks posed by the exposure to pesticides for aquatic organisms and (2) pre-authorization regulatory risk assessment schemes are insufficient to protect aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Betz-Koch
- Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Björn Jacobs
- German Federal Institute of Hydrology, Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG), Koblenz, Germany
| | - Jörg Oehlmann
- Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Dominik Ratz
- Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Christian Reutter
- Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Arne Wick
- German Federal Institute of Hydrology, Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG), Koblenz, Germany
| | - Matthias Oetken
- Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
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Verheyen J, Cuypers K, Stoks R. Adverse effects of the pesticide chlorpyrifos on the physiology of a damselfly only occur at the cold and hot extremes of a temperature gradient. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 326:121438. [PMID: 36963457 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Ecotoxicological studies considerably improved realism by assessing the toxicity of pollutants at different temperatures. Nevertheless, they may miss key interaction patterns between pollutants and temperature by typically considering only part of the natural thermal gradient experienced by species and ignoring daily temperature fluctuations (DTF). We therefore tested in a common garden laboratory experiment the effects of the pesticide chlorpyrifos across a range of mean temperatures and DTF on physiological traits (related to oxidative stress and bioenergetics) in low- and high-latitude populations of Ischnura elegans damselfly larvae. As expected, the impact of chlorpyrifos varied along the wide range of mean temperatures (12-34 °C). None of the physiological traits (except the superoxide anion levels) were affected by chlorpyrifos at the intermediate mean temperatures (20-24 °C). Instead, most of them were negatively affected by chlorpyrifos (reduced activity levels of the antioxidant defense enzymes superoxide dismutase [SOD], catalase [CAT] and peroxidase [PER], and a reduced energy budget) at the very high (≥28 °C) or extreme high temperatures (≥32 °C), and to lesser extent at the lower mean temperatures (≤16 °C). Notably, at the lower mean temperatures the negative impact of chlorpyrifos was often only present or stronger under DTF. Although the chlorpyrifos effects on the physiological traits greatly depended on the experimentally imposed thermal gradient, patterns were mainly consistent across the natural latitude-associated thermal gradient, indicating the generality of our results. The thermal patterns in chlorpyrifos-induced physiological responses contributed to the observed toxicity patterns in life history (reduced survival and growth at low and high mean temperatures). Taken together, our results underscore the importance of evaluating pesticide toxicity along a temperature gradient and of taking a mechanistic approach with a focus on physiology, to improve our understanding of the combined effects of pollutants and temperature in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Verheyen
- Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Kiani Cuypers
- Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Robby Stoks
- Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium
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