Cathode-Introduced Atomic H* for Fe(II)-Complex Regeneration to Effective Electro-Fenton Process at a Natural pH

Fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin removal from synthetic and real wastewaters by single and combined electrochemical advanced oxidation processes. A review

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) is a widely prescribed fluoroquinolone antibiotic detected in the aquatic environment fostering the emergence of bacteria and posing risks the human health and ecosystem integrity. The present comprehensive critical review deals with CIP removal from synthetic and real wastewater by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) up to 2024. Lower performance was obtained in real wastewaters than synthetic ones because their components scavenged-generated oxidizing agents. Anodic oxidation (AO) has been developed with active dimensionally stable anodes (DSA) and the non-active potent boron-doped diamond (BDD) one, where CIP solutions in chloride medium reached a maximal of 75 % mineralization. A more rapid CIP degradation and up to 96 % mineralization have been found for homogeneous electro-Fenton (EF) with Pt and Fe2+ catalyst. Heterogeneous Fenton with functionalized iron cathodes and solid iron catalysts, and heterogeneous EF-like with non-ferrous catalysts gave worse results. Novel modified EF processes with dual cathodes for direct.•OH production after H2O2 electrogeneration allowed up to 96 % mineralization. Photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) with UVA light and solar PEF (SPEF) can yield overall mineralization by the rapid photolysis of final Fe(III)-carboxylate species formed. Photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) with new photoanodes like FTO/Ni-ZnO under UVA light yielded 87 % mineralization. Hybrid AO, EF, PEF, and PEC processes with persulfate, O3, ultrasounds, or photocatalysis were more powerful than their single EAOPs. The characteristics and performance of each method, the generation of oxidants (•OH, O2•-, and/or 1O2), its reusability, and the by-products produced are discussed. The loss of toxicity of the treated solutions by EAOPs is finally detailed.

Hydroxyl-induced structural defects in metal-organic frameworks for improved photocatalytic decontamination: Accelerated exciton dissociation and hydrogen bonding interaction

The introduction of structural defects can improve the charge separation efficiency of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)-based photocatalysts, which however come with suboptimal decontamination performance, due to steric hindrance and limited binding capacity of the involved modulators. In this work, hydroxyl group capturing the advantages of both worlds was utilized as new modulator to improve the photocatalytic performance of Fe-based defective MOFs. Benefited from its low steric effect and strong coordination bonding capability, hydroxyl-induced defects in Fe-MOF contributed to a nearly 8-fold increase of rate constant for the photocatalytic removal of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) compared to that of pristine one, which also exceeded the defective one induced by acetic acid as modulator. A combination of characterizations and theoretical calculations suggests that hydroxyl-induced structural defects fostered faster kinetics of exciton dissociation and optimal charge separation. The higher electron utilization through hydrogen bonding interaction between these hydroxyl-induced structural defects and contaminant was further confirmed by ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations. This work presents a simple yet robust strategy for the generation of defective MOFs, upon which efficient photoreduction systems toward Cr(VI) removal are anticipated.

Ni(0) formation on carbon felt cathode triggers redox synergetic degradation of Ni-EDTA during electrochemical treatment for Ni-plating wastewater

Ni organic complexes are widely used in industrial production, posing severe threats to the natural environment and human health. In this work, we found that Ni (0) formed by the decomplexation and reduction of typical Ni organic complexes (Ni-EDTA) on the surface of carbon felt cathode. The formed Ni(0) as a catalytic site generates atomic hydrogen (H•) with strong reductive reactivity via electron transfer. H• not only accelerates the oxygen activation to form H2O2 on carbon felt cathode, but also reacts with H2O2 to generate strong oxidative hydroxyl radicals (HO•) and singlet oxygen (1O2). Under the attack of multiple active species, 95.5 % of Ni-EDTA is removed, and the removal efficiencies of total organic carbon (TOC) and dissolved Ni reach 43.8 % and 77.1 % after 120 min of electrolysis at -2.0 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). The redox synergistic reaction, initiated by the formation of Ni(0) on the carbon felt cathode, demonstrates excellent stability in treating real Ni plating wastewater. This approach eliminates the need for additional chemical reagents and prevents the release of heavy metals. Our findings offer a novel strategy for leveraging the self-transformation of Ni organic complexes to generate various active species for electrochemical treatment of Ni plating wastewater.

Stability challenges of transition metal-modified cathodes for electro-Fenton process: A mini-review

Electro-Fenton (EF) process with transition-metal (TM) modified cathode has been regarded as a green and promising technology for wastewater treatment. Recently, breakthroughs in boosting catalyst activity for both two-electron oxygen reduction reaction (2e- ORR) and Fenton's reaction have gained intensive attention. However, achieving long-term stability of catalysts remains challenging, but is decisive for large-scale applications. This minireview provides fundamental understanding on the activity-stability correlation and the deactivation mechanisms of TM-based catalysts in EF systems, focusing on physical and chemical evolution, metal dissolution, catalyst detachment and structure collapse during long-term electrolysis. Subsequently, ongoing efforts from catalyst design to electrode engineering to stabilize the metal active sites are highlighted. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives in developing active and durable TM-modified cathodes are discussed, serving as a roadmap towards the large-scale application of EF process for wastewater treatment.

Simultaneous Copper and EDTA Ligands Recovery from Electroless Effluent with Metallic Copper and Formaldehyde

The traditional treatment of toxic and refractory copper(II)-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid chelate (Cu(II)-EDTA) in electroless effluents often generates hazardous waste and secondary nitrogen-containing pollutants without maximizing the resource recovery. This study demonstrates a facile strategy to simultaneously recover Cu and EDTA ligands from Cu(II)-EDTA electroless effluent with commercially available metallic Cu and formaldehyde. In this strategy, metallic Cu is used to activate formaldehyde, a prevalent yet often overlooked cocontaminant in Cu(II)-EDTA effluents, to produce highly reductive hydrogen radical (•H), which in situ decomplex Cu(II)-EDTA, reduces the central Cu(II) into metallic Cu, and release EDTA ligand. Impressively, this strategy can recover 99.9% of Cu from a real Cu(II)-EDTA effluent (∼2000 mg/L) as a high-purity Cu powder without further treatment, and 99.2% of EDTA from a real Cu(II)-EDTA effluent using a precipitation-acidification post-treatment procedure, earning a net profit of US $72.38 per ton. The proposed approach offers a "pollution-curing-pollution" solution to transform chelated metal waste into valuable resources.

Boosting singlet oxygen generation for salinity wastewater treatment through co-activation of oxygen and peroxymonosulfate in photoelectrochemical process

High concentrations of inorganic ions in saline wastewater pose adverse effects on hydroxyl radical (HO•)-dominated technologies. Here, we report a unique strategy for boosting singlet oxygen (1O2) generation via coactivation of oxygen and peroxymonosulfate (PMS) by regulating the electron transfer regime in the photoelectrochemical process. The Fe-N bridge in atomic Fe-modified graphitic carbon nitride (denoted SA-FeCN) favors the construction of electron-defective Fe and electron-rich N vacancies (Nvs) to accelerate directional electron transfer. The produced intermediate (HSO4-O···Fe-Nvs···O-O) as a chemical channel accelerates the directional electron transfer from PMS to further reduce O2 to form activated products (SO5 •-, O2 •-), thereby transforming O2 into 1O2. An optimized 1O2 generation rate of 39.4 μmol L - 1 s - 1 is obtained, which is 15.7-945.0 times higher than that in traditional advanced oxidation processes. Fast kinetics are achieved for removing various phenolic pollutants in a nonradical oxidation pathway, which is less susceptible to the coexistence of natural organic matter and inorganic ions. The COD removal for coal wastewater and complex industrial wastewater in real scenarios is found to reach a value of 90%-96% in 3 h. This work provides a new direction for boosting the 1O2 generation rate, especially for the selective degradation of target electron-rich contaminants in saline wastewater.

Simultaneous removal of Cd(II) and phosphate by nanoscale zero-valent iron from solution: Co-sorption and implication of corrosion

Nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) has been extensively utilized in environmental remediation, but its reactivity in the presence of co-contaminants requires further investigation for effective application in complex environments. Here, we conducted batch removal experiments to systematically investigate the co-removal behaviors of Cd(II) and phosphate by nZVI. Results showed that nZVI can synergistically remove Cd(II) and phosphate in solution, with the removal efficiency of Cd(II) and phosphate in the binary system being approximately 2 and 5 times higher than those in the single system, respectively. Sequential removal experiments combined with characterization analysis revealed the co-sorption of Cd(II) and phosphate onto the corrosion product of nZVI mainly by forming the ternary complexes (≡Fe-P-Cd). The Fe(OH)2 formed as the initial nZVI corrosion product provides numerous active sites for immobilization of Cd(II) and phosphate. Such effective co-sorption of Fe(OH)2 inhibits its subsequent phase transformation to Fe3O4. Overall, our work sheds light on how nZVI, Cd(II), and phosphate interact in solution as well as highlights the influence of phase transformation on co-removal, which can broaden the potential applications of nZVI in the practical environment.

Synergy of oxygen reduction for H2O2 production and electro-fenton induced by atomic hydrogen over a bifunctional cathode towards water purification

In the Electro-Fenton (EF) process, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is produced in situ by a two-electron oxygen reduction reaction (2e ORR), which is further activated by electrocatalysts to generate reactive oxygen specieces (ROS). However, the selectivity of 2e transfer from catalysts to O2 is still unsatisfactory, resulting in the insufficient H2O2 availability. Carbon based materials with abundant oxygen-containing functional groups have been used as excellent 2e ORR electrocatalysts, and atomic hydrogen (H*) can quickly transfer one electron to H2O2 in a wide pH range and avoiding the restrict of traditional Fenton reaction. Herein, nickel nanoparticles growth on oxidized carbon deposited on modified carbon felt (Ni/Co@CFAO) was prepared as a bifunctional catalytic electrode coupling 2e ORR to form H2O2 with H* reducing H2O2 to produce ROS for highly efficient degradation of antibiotics. Electrochemical oxidation and thermal treatment were used to modulate the structure of carbon substrates for increasing the electro-generation of H2O2, while H* was produced over Ni sites through H2O/H+ reduction constructing an in-situ EF system. The experimental results indicated that 2e ORR and H* induced EF processes could promote each other mutually. The optimized Ni/Co@CFAO with a Ni:C mass ratio of 1:9 exhibited a high 2e selectivity and H2O2 yield of 49 mg L-1. As a result, the designed Ni/Co@CFAO exhibited excellent electrocatalytic ability to degrade tetracycline (TC) under different aqueous environmental conditions, and achieved 98.5% TC removal efficiency within 60 min H2O2 and H* were generated simultaneously at the bifunctional cathode and react to form strong oxidizing free radicals •OH. At the same time, O2 gained an electron to form •O2-, which could react with •OH and H2O to form 1O2, which had relatively long life (10-6∼10-3 s), further promoting the efficient removal of antibiotics in water.

Regulating Surface Dipole Moments of TiO2 for the pH-Universal Cathodic Fenton-Like Process

Although electro-Fenton (EF) processes can avoid the safety risks raised by concentrated hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), the Fe(III) reduction has always been either unstable or inefficient at high pH, resulting in catalyst deactivation and low selectivity of H2O2 activation for producing hydroxyl radicals (•OH). Herein, we provided a strategy to regulate the surface dipole moment of TiO2 by Fe anchoring (TiO2-Fe), which, in turn, substantially increased the H2O2 activation for •OH production. The TiO2-Fe catalyst could work at pH 4-10 and maintained considerable degradation efficiency for 10 cycles. Spectroscopic analysis and a theoretical study showed that the less polar Fe-O bond on TiO2-Fe could finely tune the polarity of H2O2 to alter its empty orbital distribution, contributing to better ciprofloxacin degradation activity within a broad pH range. We further verified the critical role of the weakened polarity of H2O2 on its homolysis into •OH by theoretically and experimentally investigating Cu-, Co-, Ni-, Mn-, and Mo-anchored TiO2. This concept offers an avenue for elaborate design of green, robust, and pH-universal cathodic Fenton-like catalysts and beyond.

MoS2-mediated active hydrogen modulation to boost Fe2+ regeneration in solar-driven electro-Fenton process

The sluggish kinetics of Fe2+ regeneration seriously hinders the performance of Fenton process. However, the conventional Fenton system excessively stifle hydrogen-producing reactions, ignoring the significance of active hydrogen (H*) in Fe3+ reduction. Herein, a strategy of H* modulation is developed by decorating molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) on a graphite felt (GF) cathode to boost Fe2+ regeneration in solar-driven electro-Fenton (SEF) process. With MoS2 regulation, moderately dispersed MoS2 on GF can serve as a bifunctional cathode, where the H* and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are simultaneously generated through H+ reduction and O2 reduction, respectively. The in-situ generated H2O2 can trigger Fenton reactions with Fe2+, while the H* with robust reducing potential can significantly expedite Fe3+ reduction, consequently enhancing the HO• production. Both DFT calculations and EPR experiments confirm that H* can be activated via MoS2 decoration. The results show that Fe2+ concentration in the MoS2 @GF-SEF system remains at 15.74 mg/L (56.21%) after 6 h, which is 17.89 times that of the GF-SEF system. Moreover, the HO• content and organics degradation rate in the MoS2 @GF-SEF are 3.61 and 5.30 times those of the GF-SEF, respectively. This study provides a practical cathode strategy of H* modulation to enhance HO• production and electro-Fenton process. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATION: Boosting Fe2+ regeneration is of great value for the Electro-Fenton process. Herein, report a strategy to achieve this goal based on a MoS2 @GF cathode. Remarkably, the MoS2 @GF system exhibits exceptional efficiency for both various refractory organic compounds with environmentally hazardous effects and sterilization aspects, which can also work over a wide range of pH values (3-11). Specially, this system is driven only by solar energy. These characteristics make the electro-Fenton system more suitable for practical wastewater treatment.

Tuning Fe3O4 for sustainable cathodic heterogeneous electro-Fenton catalysis by acetylated chitosan

Peroxidase-like catalysts are safe and low-cost candidates to tackle the dilemma in constructing sustainable cathodic heterogeneous electro-Fenton (CHEF) catalysts for water purification, but the elusive structure-property relationship of enzyme-like catalysts constitutes a pressing challenge for the advancement of CHEF processes in practically relevant water and wastewater treatment. Herein, we probe the origins of catalytic efficiency in the CHEF process by artificially tailoring the peroxidase-like activity of Fe3O4 through a series of acetylated chitosan-based hydrogels, which serve as ecofriendly alternatives to traditional carbon shells. The optimized acetylated chitosan wrapping Fe3O4 hydrogel on the cathode shows an impressive activity and stability in CHEF process, overcoming the complicated and environmentally unfavored procedures in the electro-Fenton-related processes. Structural characterizations and theoretical calculations reveal that the amide group in chitosan can modulate the intrinsic redox capacity of surficial Fe sites on Fe3O4 toward CHEF catalysis via the neutral hydrogen bond. This work provides a sustainable path and molecule-level insight for the rational design of high-efficiency CHEF catalysts and beyond.

Critical Review on the Mechanisms of Fe2+ Regeneration in the Electro-Fenton Process: Fundamentals and Boosting Strategies

This review presents an exhaustive overview on the mechanisms of Fe³⁺ cathodic reduction within the context of the electro-Fenton (EF) process. Different strategies developed to improve the reduction rate are discussed, dividing them into two categories that regard the mechanistic feature that is promoted: electron transfer control and mass transport control. Boosting the Fe³⁺ conversion to Fe²⁺ via electron transfer control includes: (i) the formation of a series of active sites in both carbon- and metal-based materials and (ii) the use of other emerging strategies such as single-atom catalysis or confinement effects. Concerning the enhancement of Fe²⁺ regeneration by mass transport control, the main routes involve the application of magnetic fields, pulse electrolysis, interfacial Joule heating effects, and photoirradiation. Finally, challenges are singled out, and future prospects are described. This review aims to clarify the Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ cycling process in the EF process, eventually providing essential ideas for smart design of highly effective systems for wastewater treatment and valorization at an industrial scale.

In Situ Reconstruction of Metal Oxide Cathodes for Ammonium Generation from High-Strength Nitrate Wastewater: Elucidating the Role of the Substrate in the Performance of Co3O4-x

In situ electrochemical reconstruction is important for transition metal oxides explored as electrocatalysts for electrochemical nitrate reduction reactions (ENRRs). Herein, we report substantial performance enhancement of ammonium generation on Co, Fe, Ni, Cu, Ti, and W oxide-based cathodes upon reconstruction. Among them, the performance of a freestanding ER-Co₃O_4-x/CF (Co₃O₄ grown on Co foil subjected to electrochemical reduction) cathode was superior to its unreconstructed counterpart and other cathodes; e.g., an ammonium yield of 0.46 mmol h^-1 cm^-2, an ammonium selectivity of 100%, and a Faradaic efficiency of 99.9% were attained at -1.3 V in a 1400 mg L^-1 NO₃^--N solution. The reconstruction behaviors were found to vary with the underlying substrate. The inert carbon cloth only acted as a supporting matrix for immobilizing Co₃O₄, without appreciable electronic interactions between them. A combination of physicochemical characterizations and theoretical modeling provided compelling evidence that the CF-promoted self-reconstruction of Co₃O₄ induced the evolution of metallic Co and the creation of oxygen vacancies, which promoted and optimized interfacial nitrate adsorption and water dissociation, thus boosting the ENRR performance. The ER-Co₃O_4-x/CF cathode performed well over wide ranges of pH and applied current and at high nitrate loadings, ensuring its high efficacy in treating high-strength real wastewater.

N-doped graphene aerogel cathode with internal aeration for enhanced degradation of p-nitrophenol by electro-Fenton process

A columnar N-doped graphene aerogel (NGA) was successfully fabricated by one-step hydrothermal synthesis using L-hydroxyproline as reductant, N-doping, and swelling agent, and it was used as the cathode with internal aeration mode for the electro-Fenton degradation of p-nitrophenol. Owing to the stable solid-liquid-gas three-phase interface, more active defects, and modulated nitrogen dopants, the NGA cathode exhibited enhanced electrocatalytic activity. H₂O₂ could be continuously electro-generated via a two-electron oxygen reduction, and the yield of H₂O₂ was 153.3 mg·L^-1·h^-1 with the low electric energy consumption of 15.3 kWh kg^-1. Simultaneously, the NGA cathode had better charge transfer capability with N-doping, which was conducive to the conversion of Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺. Under the optimal condition, nearly 100% removal of p-nitrophenol and 84% removal of TOC were obtained within 60 and 120 min, respectively. The NGA cathode also presented good stability and versatile applicability in different water matrices. Therefore, the NGA is a cost-effective cathode material in electro-Fenton system with adequate activity and reuse stabilization.

A comprehensive review on reactive oxygen species (ROS) in advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)

In this account, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) were comprehensively reviewed, which were based on electro-Fenton and photo-Fenton processes and correlative membrane filtration technology. Specifically, this review focuses on the fundamental principles and applications of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) based on a series of nanomaterials, and we compare the pros and cons of each method and point out the perspective. Further, the emerging reviews regarding AOPs rarely emphasize the involved ROS and consider the convenience of radical classification and transformation mechanism, such a review is of paramount importance to be needed. Owing to the strong oxidation ability of radical (e.g., •OH, O₂^•-, and SO₄^•-) and non-radical (e.g., ¹O₂ and H₂O₂), these ROS would attack the organic contaminants of emerging concern, thus achieving the goal of environmental remediation. Hopefully, this review can offer detailed theoretical guidance for the researchers, and we believe it able to offer the frontier knowledge of AOPs for wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs).

Electrocatalytic hydrogenation of quinolines with water over a fluorine-modified cobalt catalyst

Room temperature and selective hydrogenation of quinolines to 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines using a safe and clean hydrogen donor catalyzed by cost-effective materials is significant yet challenging because of the difficult activation of quinolines and H₂. Here, a fluorine-modified cobalt catalyst is synthesized via electroreduction of a Co(OH)F precursor that exhibits high activity for electrocatalytic hydrogenation of quinolines by using H₂O as the hydrogen source to produce 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines with up to 99% selectivity and 94% isolated yield under ambient conditions. Fluorine surface-sites are shown to enhance the adsorption of quinolines and promote water activation to produce active atomic hydrogen (H*) by forming F⁻-K⁺(H₂O)₇ networks. A 1,4/2,3-addition pathway involving H* is proposed through combining experimental and theoretical results. Wide substrate scopes, scalable synthesis of bioactive precursors, facile preparation of deuterated analogues, and the paired synthesis of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoline and industrially important adiponitrile at a low voltage highlight the promising applications of this methodology.

Selective hydrogenation of quinolines with easy-to-handle hydrogen donors and cost-effective catalysts is desirable. Here electrocatalytic quinoline hydrogenation to 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines is reported with water over a fluorine-modified cobalt.

Singlet oxygen-dominated electrocatalytic oxidation treatment for the high-salinity quaternary ammonium compound wastewater with Ti/(RuxIry)O2 anode

The widespread application of quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) has posed a serious hazard to the environment and human being, and high concentration of Cl^- in QAC wastewater may further increase the difficulty of pollutants elimination. In this study, such a QAC wastewater under high salinity conditions was chosen as the target, the prepared Ti/(Ru_xIr_y)O₂ anode exhibited favorable catalytic performance for the oxidation and mineralization of QAC under high salinity conditions. Increasing the Ru/Ir ratio of Ti-based electrode coating also slightly promoted the inner catalytic capacity. The combination of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and quenching experiments indicates that ¹O₂ served as a main reactive specie in the Ti/(Ru_xIr_y)O₂ electrooxidation system. The increase of pH could decrease the removal efficiency of QAC for the reduced ¹O₂ yield, and the rise of Cl^- concentration could favor the QAC oxidation, and Cl^- was a better electrolyte to promote the oxidation of organic contaminants when compared to Na₂SO₄ or Na₂CO₃. Additionally, the conversion pathway of the model pollutant was tentatively investigated, the results demonstrated that there were almost no halogenated final products residual by electrocatalytic oxidation with Ti/(Ru_xIr_y)O₂ anode. This study not only elucidate the reaction mechanism of Ti/(Ru_xIr_y)O₂ anode electrocatalytic oxidation of high salinity QAC wastewater, but also may provide an efficacious and eco-friendly method for the treatment of high salinity QAC wastewater.

Incorporating Oxygen Atoms in a SnS2 Atomic Layer to Simultaneously Stabilize Atomic Hydrogen and Accelerate the Generation of Hydroxyl Radicals for Water Decontamination

Photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) is an efficient way to address various pollutants. Surface-adsorbed atomic hydrogen (H*) and hydroxyl radicals (•OH) play a key role in the PEC process. However, the instability of H* and low production of •OH considerably limit the PEC efficiency. In this study, we noted that incorporating oxygen atoms could regulate the behavior of H* by creating a locally favorable electron-rich state of S atoms in the SnS₂ catalyst. The finely modulated H* led to a 12-fold decrease in the overpotential of H₂O₂ generation (H*-OOH*-H₂O₂-•OH) by decreasing the activation energy barrier of OOH* (rate-determining step). Considering density functional theory calculations, an H*-•OH redox pair suitable for a wide pH range (3-11) was successfully constructed based on the photocathode. The optimal SnS_1.85O_0.15 AL@TNA photocathode exhibited a ∼90% reduction in Cr(VI) in 10 min and ∼70% TOC removal of 4-nitrophenol, nearly 2- and 3-fold higher than that without oxygen incorporation. Electron spin resonance spectrometry and radical quenching experiments verified that H* and the derived •OH via 1-electron and 3-electron reduction were the main active species. Operando Raman spectroscopy confirmed that the stable SnO₂ phase helped constantly activate the production of H* and •OH.

Amplifying anti-flooding electrode to fabricate modular electro-fenton system for degradation of antiviral drug lamivudine in wastewater

The advanced oxidation based on in-situ hydrogen peroxide production using carbon air cathode is very potential for wastewater treatment. However, catalyst flooding and complex assembly patterns are the bottleneck limiting the air cathode to the long-term and large-scale application. In this work, a novel anti-flooding air-breathing cathode (ABC) was prepared by a simple rolling-spraying method with relatively low price commercial materials. The novel method changed the morphology of gas diffusion layer as well as adjusted the hydrophobicity of air side of the catalyst layer. As a result, water-air distribution management was achieved and TPI disequilibrium was prevented. Compare with traditional ABC, the H₂O₂ yield and current efficiency (CE) of optimized anti-flooding ABC (ABC_0.9) increased by 13.5% (941 ± 10 mg·L^-1·h^-1 with CE of 84% at 30 mA·cm^-2), the material cost and fabrication time decreased by 10.1% (2.32 ¥·dm^-2, ~0.36 $·dm^-2) and 40%. Amplified ABC coupled with Ti/IrO₂ anodes were integrated into a modular electrode used for H₂O₂generation. When the current density (j) increased from 10 to 30 mA·cm^-2, the energy cost increased from 0.19 to 0.43 ¥·mol^-1 H₂O₂ (from 0.03 to 0.07 $·mol^-1 H₂O₂). The modular electrode was utilized in a 2 L pre-pilot scale reactor for antiviral drug lamivudine degradation by electro-Fenton (EF) process. 100% of lamivudine and 78.1% of total organic carbon (TOC) were removed within 60 min at 20 mA·cm^-2. The susceptible sites on the lamivudine toward hydroxyl radicals were investigated and transformation products (TP) as well as degradation pathway were studied.

Tannic acid-Fe complex derivative-modified electrode with pH regulating function for environmental remediation by electro-Fenton process

A heterogeneous electro-Fenton (hetero-EF) system can effectively broaden the applicable pH range, although the decreased electrogeneration efficiency of H₂O₂ at elevated pH (especially neutral conditions) is unfavorable for the efficient removal of organic pollutants. Herein, a tannic acid-Fe complex derivative-modified carbon felt (TFD@CF) cathode was prepared for hetero-EF treatment of organic pollutants over a wide pH range. Interestingly, the as-prepared hetero-EF cathode could act as a pH regulator that acidified the solution over a wide pH range. As expected, the TFD@CF cathode exhibited excellent hetero-EF activity for the removal of diverse organic pollutants (such as methyl orange, methylene blue, sulfamerazine, bisphenol A and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) at neutral and even alkaline pH (removal efficiency >90 %). A total of 2.98 kWh kg^-1 COD^-1 with 83.2 % COD removal could be achieved by the TFD@CF cathode for the treatment of actual textile dyeing secondary wastewater. Electrochemical characterizations proved that the TFD@CF cathode had excellent electrochemical properties with improved electron transfer ability and a well-pronounced Fe(III) electroreductive response. Meanwhile, more acidic groups were newly generated during the electrochemical reaction (an increase of 30.1 %), thus dissociating more H⁺ into solution. The identification of reactive oxygen species suggested that OH and ¹O₂ could be responsible for the removal of organic pollutants in the TFD@CF EF system. These interesting findings may provide new insights into the design of multifunctional hetero-EF cathodes for the removal of refractory organic pollutants.

Separation and Characterization of Cellulose Fibers from Cannabis Bast Using Foamed Nickel by Cathodic Electro-Fenton Oxidation Strategy

Degumming is the most important link in the textile industry. The main purpose of degumming is to effectively remove non-cellulose substances in plant bast fibers. In this research, we propose an electro-Fenton (EF) system with a nickel-foam (Ni-F) cathode in weak acid pH (EF/Ni-F) to degum cannabis fiber in EF while reducing the content of pollutants in degumming wastewater. FT-IR, XPS, XRD, SEM, and TG were employed to thoroughly understand the reaction characteristics to characterize chemical components, element qualities, the crystallinity, and the morphologies of degummed fibers. Additionally, physical and mechanical properties such as breaking strength, elongation at breaking, residual glue rate, whiteness, and diameter of degummed fibers were measured. Through testing, it was found that the fiber degummed by the EF method had higher breaking strength, lower residual tackiness, and higher whiteness than other methods. The antibacterial test was used to detect the effect of fiber on Staphylococcus aureus before and after degumming. EF could remove more colloidal components from cannabis than other methods, and the mechanical properties were also enhanced. The characteristics of the degummed fiber further confirmed the effectiveness of the new degumming method. Moreover, the antibacterial experiment found that the antibacterial property of the degummed fiber was enhanced. The colloidal components in the degumming wastewater were flocculated and precipitated. The upper liquid of the solution had low chromaticity, low COD value, and weak acid pH value, which can meet the discharge requirements. The above test proves that EF is an effective degumming method that is environmentally friendly, takes less time, and enhances antibacterial performance.

Effective stabilization of atomic hydrogen by Pd nanoparticles for rapid hexavalent chromium reduction and synchronous bisphenol A oxidation during the photoelectrocatalytic process

Atomic hydrogen (H*) plays a vital role in the synchronous redox of metallic ions and organic molecules. However, H* is extremely unstable as it is easily converted to hydrogen. Herein, we designed a novel strategy for the effective stabilization of H* to enhance its utility. The synthesized Pd nanoparticles grown on the defective MoS₂ (DMS) of TiO₂ nanowire arrays (TNA) (TNA/DMS/Pd) photocathode exhibited rapid Cr(VI) reduction (~95% in 10 min) and bisphenol A (BPA) oxidation (~97% in 30 min), with the kinetic constants almost 24- and 6-fold higher than those of the TNA photocathode, respectively. This superior performances could be attributed to: (i) the generated interface heterojunctions between TNA and DMS boosted the separation efficiencies of photogenerated electrons, thereby supplying abundant valance electrons to lower the overpotential to create a suitable microenvironment for H* generation; (ii) the stabilization of H* by Pd nanoparticles resulted in a significant increase in the yield of hydroxyl radical (•OH). This research provides a new strategy for the effective utilization of H* toward rapid reduction of heavy metals and synchronous oxidation of the refractory organics.

Generation of atomic hydrogen by Ni-Fe hydroxides: Mechanism and activity for hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene

Atomic hydrogen (H•) is highly reactive for the hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene (TCE). In this work, we found that the coprecipitation of Ni²⁺ and Fe²⁺ at neutral pH led to an unprecedented catalytic generation of H•. The generated H• effectively dechlorinate TCE to nontoxic ethylene and ethane, and Fe²⁺ is the only electron donor. The abundant adsorbed H• produced with a Ni/Fe ratio of 0.4 enhances hydrogen evolution reaction causing a low efficiency for hydrodechlorination. In contrast, the active absorbed H• is generated in the crystal lattice of Ni-Fe hydroxides with a Ni/Fe ratio of 3.0 causing highly efficient hydrodechlorination of TCE. This work not only reveals the mechanism of catalytic hydrodechlorination by Ni-Fe hydroxides at neutral pH, but also provides a novel approach to detoxify TCE in contaminated water using facile precipitated Ni-Fe hydroxides.

Generation of hydroxyl radicals by metal-free bifunctional electrocatalysts for enhanced organics removal

Low yields of H₂O₂ and a narrow range of appropriate pH values have been two major drawbacks for electro-Fenton (EF) process. Herein, metal-free electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) were developed with nitrogen and sulfur co-doped electrochemically exfoliated graphene (N, S-EEGr) electrocatalysts, which was confirmed as an outstanding bifunctional catalyst for synchronous generation and activation of H₂O₂ via (2 + 1) e^- consecutive reduction reactions. Specifically, two elements (N, S) in metal-free N, S-EEGr-CF cathode synergize to promote the formation of H₂O₂ followed by its activation. With N, S-EEGr-CF cathode, phenol of initial 50 mg L^-1 could be effectively removed within pH 3-11 and 6.25 mA cm^-2, and 100% removal efficiency could be achieved within 15-min even at neutral pH. The pseudo-first-order rate constant for phenol removal in metal-free EAOPs with N,S-EEGr-CF at neutral pH was 10 times higher than that with EF process. Detection of active species, coupled with decay kinetics with specific trapping agents, confirmed that OH was the dominant oxidizing species promoting removal efficiencies of organics (phenol, antibiotics and dyes) at pH 3 and pH 7. In the actual wastewater treatment, the synergistic effect of bifunctional catalyst would also be used for improving the degradation efficiency of organics. Thus, the metal-free EAOPs with N,S-EEGr-CF cathode may serve as an alternative in wastewater treatment with a broadened range of solution pH values and avoiding Fe²⁺ (catalyst) addition.

A critical review on metal complexes removal from water using methods based on Fenton-like reactions: Analysis and comparison of methods and mechanisms

Metals mainly exist in the form of complexes in urban wastewater, fresh water and even drinking water, which are difficult to remove and further harm human health. Fenton-like reaction has been used for the removal of metal complexes. Effective removal of metal complexes using Fenton-like reaction requires the removal of both metals and organic ligands, meanwhile, the fate of metals and organic pollutions must be clearly understood. Thus, this review summarizes the relevant research on metal complex removal from using Fenton-like reactions in the past ten years, with the detailed removal approaches and mechanisms analyzed. Electro-, photo-, microwave/ultrasound-Fenton reactions or the synergistic Fenton reaction have been shown to exhibit excellent metal complex treatment capabilities. Furthermore, various catalysts, such as transition metals, bimetals and metal-free catalytic systems can expand the potential applications of Fenton-like reactions. Novel Fenton reaction methods without the addition of metals or H₂O₂, with construction of a dual active center catalyst, or with the introduction of other free radicals, are all worthy of further investigation. Due to increasing levels of environmental metal and organic pollutions remediation requirements, more research is required for the development of economical and efficient novel Fenton-like processes.

Degradation of metoprolol from wastewater in a bio-electro-Fenton system

Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been intensely studied for the removal of refractory pollutants because of the strong oxidizing capacity of hydroxyl radical. One of the emerging AOP methods gaining increased attention is bio-electro-Fenton (BEF) which can generate hydroxyl radical in-situ in the cathode chamber using the energy harvested by exoelectrogenic bacteria in the anode. In this study, the feasibility of BEF technology for the removal of metoprolol, a typical micropollutant widely found in the water environment, was for the first time investigated. It was found that applied voltage and working pH had a significant effect on removal efficiency while Fe²⁺ dosage as catalyst showed a little effect. Besides removal by hydroxyl radical, metoprolol might be adsorbed on the surface of the reactor, electrode, and precipitated with iron sludge, especially at neutral pH. In a batch experiment with a supplied voltage of 0.2 V, pH 3, and a Fe²⁺ dose of 0.2 mM, the removal rate of metoprolol in the BEF for the synthetic wastewater and the real effluent from the secondary sediment tank was 66% and 55% within 12 h, respectively. A possible degradation pathway was proposed. Then the removal of metoprolol in a continuous flow BEF system was further studied at different hydraulic retention times (HRTs) of 2, 4, and 6 h, about 77%, 92%, and 95% removal was observed. A toxicity test (less than 20% inhibition on bioluminescence) during treatment and energy cost analysis (5.269 × 10^-3 kWh/order/m³) in treating 10 μg/L of metoprolol containing wastewater effluent at continuous flow mode implied that the proposed BEF has a potential for wastewater treatment.

Selective Electrocatalytic Reduction of Oxygen to Hydroxyl Radicals via 3-Electron Pathway with FeCo Alloy Encapsulated Carbon Aerogel for Fast and Complete Removing Pollutants

We reported the selective electrochemical reduction of oxygen (O₂ ) to hydroxyl radicals (^. OH) via 3-electron pathway with FeCo alloy encapsulated by carbon aerogel (FeCoC). The graphite shell with exposed -COOH is conducive to the 2-electron reduction pathway for H₂ O₂ generation stepped by 1-electron reduction towards to ^. OH. The electrocatalytic activity can be regulated by tuning the local electronic environment of carbon shell with the electrons coming from the inner FeCo alloy. The new strategy of ^. OH generation from electrocatalytic reduction O₂ overcomes the rate-limiting step over electron transfer initiated by reduction-/oxidation-state cycle in Fenton process. Fast and complete removal of ciprofloxacin was achieved within 5 min in this proposed system, the apparent rate constant (k_obs ) was up to 1.44±0.04 min^-1 , which is comparable with the state-of-the-art advanced oxidation processes. The degradation rate almost remains the same after 50 successive runs, suggesting the satisfactory stability for practical applications.

Electro-Fenton beyond the Degradation of Organics: Treatment of Thiosalts in Contaminated Mine Water

Electro-Fenton (EF) is an emerging technology with well-known outstanding oxidation power; yet, its application to the treatment of inorganic contaminants has been largely disregarded. Thiosalts are contaminants of emerging concern in mine water, responsible for delayed acidity in natural waterways. In this study, EF was used to treat thiosalts in synthetic and real mine water. Thiosulfate (S₂O₃^2-) solutions were first used to optimize the main parameters affecting the process, namely, the current density (2.08-6.25 mA cm^-2), temperature (4 vs 20 °C), and S₂O₃^2- concentration (0.25-2 g L^-1). S₂O₃^2- was almost completely removed in 2 h of treatment at 6.25 mA cm^-2, while temperature played no important role in the process efficiency. The optimal conditions were then applied to treat a real sample of contaminated mine water, resulting in complete S₂O₃^2- and S₄O₆^2- oxidation to SO₄^2- in 90 min at 6.25 mA cm^-2 (95% removal in only 60 min). The reaction mechanisms were investigated in detail based on the quantification of the main degradation byproducts. This study opens new possibilities for EF application to the treatment of thiosalt-contaminated mine water and other oxidizable inorganic-impacted wastewaters.

Fenton/Fenton-like processes with in-situ production of hydrogen peroxide/hydroxyl radical for degradation of emerging contaminants: Advances and prospects

Fenton processes based on the reaction between Fe²⁺ and H₂O₂ to produce hydroxyl radicals, have been widely studied and applied for the degradation of toxic organic contaminants in wastewater due to its high efficiency, mild condition and simple operation. However, H₂O₂ is usually added by bulk feeding, which suffers from the potential risks during the storage and transportation of H₂O₂ as well as its low utilization efficiency. Therefore, Fenton/Fenton-like processes with in-situ production of H₂O₂ have received increasing attention, in which H₂O₂ was in-situ produced through O₂ activation, then decomposed into hydroxyl radicals by Fenton catalysts. In this review, the in situ production of H₂O₂ for Fenton oxidation was introduced, the strategies for activation of O₂ to generate H₂O₂ were summarized, including chemical reduction, electro-catalysis and photo-catalysis, the influencing factors and the mechanisms of the in situ production and utilization of H₂O₂ in various Fenton/Fenton-like processes were analyzed and discussed, and the applications of these processes for the degradation of toxic organic contaminants were summarized. This review will deepen the understanding of the tacit cooperation between the in situ production and utilization of H₂O₂ in Fenton process, and provide the further insight into this promising process for degradation of emerging contaminants in industrial wastewater.

Duet Fe3C and FeNx Sites for H2O2 Generation and Activation toward Enhanced Electro-Fenton Performance in Wastewater Treatment

Heterogeneous electro-Fenton (HEF) reaction has been considered as a promising process for real effluent treatments. However, the design of effective catalysts for simultaneous H₂O₂ generation and activation to achieve bifunctional catalysis for O₂ toward •OH production remains a challenge. Herein, a core-shell structural Fe-based catalyst (FeNC@C), with Fe₃C and FeN nanoparticles encapsulated by porous graphitic layers, was synthesized and employed in a HEF system. The FeNC@C catalyst presented a significant performance in degradation of various chlorophenols at various conditions with an extremely low level of leached iron. Electron spin resonance and radical scavenging revealed that •OH was the key reactive species and Fe^IV would play a role at neutral conditions. Experimental and density function theory calculation revealed the dominated role of Fe₃C in H₂O₂ generation and the positive effect of FeN_x sites on H₂O₂ activation to form •OH. Meanwhile, FeNC@C was proved to be less pH dependence, high stability, and well-recycled materials for practical application in wastewater purification.

Unconventional electro-Fenton process operating at a wide pH range with Ni foam cathode and tripolyphosphate electrolyte

We propose an unconventional electro-Fenton (EF) system with a nickel-foam (Ni-F) cathode and tripolyphosphate (3-PP) electrolyte at near-neutral pH (EF/Ni-F-3-PP) to overcome pH restrictions in EF while preventing Ni-F corrosion. Response surface modelling was used to optimize the main operating parameters with a model prediction analysis (R² = 0.99): pH = 5.8, Fe²⁺ = 3.0 mM and applied current = 349.6 mA. Among the three variables, the pH exerted the highest influence on the process. Under optimal conditions, 100 % of phenol removal was achieved in 25 min with a pseudo-first-order apparent rate constant (k_app) of 0.2 min^-1, 3.2-fold higher than the k_app of EF/Ni-F with SO₄^2- electrolyte at pH 3. A mineralization yield of 81.5 % was attained after 2 h; furthermore, it was found that 3-PP enhanced H₂O₂ accumulation by preventing bulk H₂O₂ decomposition. Finally, toxicity evaluation revealed the formation of toxic by-products at the early stages of treatment, which were totally depleted after 2 h, demonstrating the detoxifying capacity of the system. In conclusion, this study shows for the first time the potential of Ni-F as a cathode for EF under near-neutral conditions, rendered possible by the 3PP electrolyte. Under these conditions, the Ni-F corrosion issue could be alleviated.

In Situ-Formed PdFe Nanoalloy and Carbon Defects in Cathode for Synergic Reduction-Oxidation of Chlorinated Pollutants in Electro-Fenton Process

Complete dechlorination and mineralization of chlorophenols via the reduction-oxidation-mediated electro-Fenton process with a composite bulk cathode is first proposed. The in situ formation of a PdFe nanoalloy and carbon defects as key active sites is mutually induced during the formation of a carbon aerogel-based electrode. Specifically, the PdFe nanoalloy promotes the generation of [H]_ads as reduction sites and improves the electron transfer via an electrical circuit, while the carbon defects selectively favor the 2e^- oxygen reduction pathway. Notably, this work implies a novel electrocatalytic model for the formation of ·OH via (2 + 1)e^- oxygen reduction by a consecutive reaction with carbon defects and a PdFe nanoalloy. Complete total organic carbon removal and dechlorination of 3-chlorophenol were performed after 6 h. The kinetic rate constant for removing haloacetamides (HAMs) in drinking water was 0.21-0.41 h^-1, and the degradation efficiency was self-enhanced after electrolysis for 2 h because of the increased concentration of [H⁺]. The specific energy consumption was ∼0.55 W·h·g^-1 at 100% removal of some HAMs, corresponding to a power consumption of 0.6-1.1 kW·h for complete dehalogenation per ton of drinking water in waterworks. Moreover, the PdFe alloy/CA exhibited extreme mechanical and electrochemical stability with limited iron (∼0.07 ppm) and palladium (0.02 ppm) leaching during the actual application.