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Lang L, Böhler H, Wagler H, Beck T. Assembly Requirements for the Construction of Large-Scale Binary Protein Structures. Biomacromolecules 2024; 25:177-187. [PMID: 38059469 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.3c00891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
The precise assembly of multiple biomacromolecules into well-defined structures and materials is of great importance for various biomedical and nanobiotechnological applications. In this study, we investigate the assembly requirements for two-component materials using charged protein nanocages as building blocks. To achieve this, we designed several variants of ferritin nanocages to determine the surface characteristics necessary for the formation of large-scale binary three-dimensional (3D) assemblies. These nanocage variants were employed in protein crystallization experiments and macromolecular crystallography analyses, complemented by computational methods. Through the screening of nanocage variant combinations at various ionic strengths, we identified three essential features for successful assembly: (1) the presence of a favored crystal contact region, (2) the presence of a charged patch not involved in crystal contacts, and (3) sufficient distinctiveness between the nanocages. Surprisingly, the absence of noncrystal contact mediating patches had a detrimental effect on the assemblies, highlighting their unexpected importance. Intriguingly, we observed the formation of not only binary structures but also both negatively and positively charged unitary structures under previously exclusively binary conditions. Overall, our findings will inform future design strategies by providing some design rules, showcasing the utility of supercharging symmetric building blocks in facilitating the assembly of biomacromolecules into large-scale binary 3D assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurin Lang
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hendrik Böhler
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Henrike Wagler
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tobias Beck
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
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2
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Jacobs M, Bansal P, Shukla D, Schroeder CM. Understanding Supramolecular Assembly of Supercharged Proteins. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2022; 8:1350-1361. [PMID: 36188338 PMCID: PMC9523778 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.2c00730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Ordered supramolecular assemblies have recently been created using electrostatic interactions between oppositely charged proteins. Despite recent progress, the fundamental mechanisms governing the assembly of oppositely supercharged proteins are not fully understood. Here, we use a combination of experiments and computational modeling to systematically study the supramolecular assembly process for a series of oppositely supercharged green fluorescent protein variants. We show that net charge is a sufficient molecular descriptor to predict the interaction fate of oppositely charged proteins under a given set of solution conditions (e.g., ionic strength), but the assembled supramolecular structures critically depend on surface charge distributions. Interestingly, our results show that a large excess of charge is necessary to nucleate assembly and that charged residues not directly involved in interprotein interactions contribute to a substantial fraction (∼30%) of the interaction energy between oppositely charged proteins via long-range electrostatic interactions. Dynamic subunit exchange experiments further show that relatively small, 16-subunit assemblies of oppositely charged proteins have kinetic lifetimes on the order of ∼10-40 min, which is governed by protein composition and solution conditions. Broadly, our results inform how protein supercharging can be used to create different ordered supramolecular assemblies from a single parent protein building block.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael
I. Jacobs
- Beckman
Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Prateek Bansal
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Diwakar Shukla
- Beckman
Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Charles M. Schroeder
- Beckman
Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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Linko V, Zhang H, Nonappa, Kostiainen MA, Ikkala O. From Precision Colloidal Hybrid Materials to Advanced Functional Assemblies. Acc Chem Res 2022; 55:1785-1795. [PMID: 35647700 PMCID: PMC9260957 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
ConspectusThe concept of colloids encompasses a wide range of isotropic and anisotropic particles with diverse sizes, shapes, and functions from synthetic nanoparticles, nanorods, and nanosheets to functional biological units. They are addressed in materials science for various functions, while they are ubiquitous in the biological world for multiple functions. A large variety of synthetic colloids have been researched due to their scientific and technological importance; still they characteristically suffer from finite size distributions, imperfect shapes and interactions, and not fully engineered functions. This contrasts with biological colloids that offer precision in their size, shape, and functionality. Materials science has searched for inspiration from the biological world to allow structural control by self-assembly and hierarchy and to identify novel routes for combinations of functions in bio-inspiration.Herein, we first discuss different approaches for highly defined structural control of technically relevant synthetic colloids based on guided assemblies of biological motifs. First, we describe how polydisperse nanoparticles can be assembled within hollow protein cages to allow well-defined assemblies and hierarchical packings. Another approach relies on DNA nanotechnology-based assemblies, where engineered DNA structures allow programmed assembly. Then we will discuss synthetic colloids that have either particularly narrow size dispersity or even atomically precise structures for new assemblies and potential functions. Such colloids can have well-defined packings for membranes allowing high modulus. They can be switchable using light-responsive moieties, and they can initiate packing of larger assemblies of different geometrical shapes. The emphasis is on atomically defined nanoclusters that allow well-defined assemblies by supramolecular interactions, such as directional hydrogen bonding. Finally, we will discuss stimulus-responsive colloids for new functions, even toward complex responsive functions inspired by life. Therein, stimulus-responsive materials inspired by biological learning could allow the next generation of such materials. Classical conditioning is among the simplest biological learning concepts, requiring two stimuli and triggerable memory. Therein we use thermoresponsive hydrogels with plasmonic gold nanoparticles and a spiropyran photoacid as a model. Heating is the unconditioned stimulus leading to melting of the thermoresponsive gel, whereas light (at a specified wavelength) originally leads to reduced pH without plasmonic or structural changes because of steric gel stabilization. Under heat-induced gel melting, light results in pH-decrease and chain-like aggregation of the gold nanoparticles, allowing a new plasmonic response. Thus, simultaneous heating and light irradiation allow conditioning for a newly derived stimulus, where the logic diagram is analogous to Pavlovian conditioning. The shown assemblies demonstrate the different functionalities achievable using colloids when the sizes and the dispersity are controlled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veikko Linko
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University School of Chemical Engineering, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
| | - Hang Zhang
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
| | - Nonappa
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, P.O. Box 541, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland
| | - Mauri A. Kostiainen
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University School of Chemical Engineering, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
| | - Olli Ikkala
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University School of Chemical Engineering, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland
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Lach M, Strelow C, Meyer A, Mews A, Beck T. Encapsulation of Gold Nanoparticles into Redesigned Ferritin Nanocages for the Assembly of Binary Superlattices Composed of Fluorophores and Gold Nanoparticles. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:10656-10668. [PMID: 35166537 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c20520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Nanomaterials with a defined composition and structure can be synthesized by exploiting natural templates or biomolecular matrices. In the present work, we use protein nanocages derived from human ferritin as a nanoscale building block for the assembly of gold nanoparticles and fluorescent molecules in the solid state. As a generalizable strategy, we show that prior to material synthesis, the cargo can be encapsulated into the protein nanocages using a dis- and reassembly approach. Toward this end, a new ligand system for gold nanoparticles enables efficient encapsulation of these particles into the nanocages. The gold nanoparticle-loaded protein nanocages are co-assembled with fluorophore-loaded protein nanocages. Binary superlattices are formed because two oppositely charged ferritin nanocages are used as templates for the assembly. The binary crystals show strong exciton-plasmon coupling between the encapsulated fluorophores and gold nanoparticles, which was spatially resolved with fluorescence lifetime imaging. The strategy outlined here offers a modular approach toward binary nanomaterials with highly ordered building blocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Lach
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christian Strelow
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Meyer
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Alf Mews
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tobias Beck
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
- The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
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5
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Zhu J, Avakyan N, Kakkis AA, Hoffnagle AM, Han K, Li Y, Zhang Z, Choi TS, Na Y, Yu CJ, Tezcan FA. Protein Assembly by Design. Chem Rev 2021; 121:13701-13796. [PMID: 34405992 PMCID: PMC9148388 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Proteins are nature's primary building blocks for the construction of sophisticated molecular machines and dynamic materials, ranging from protein complexes such as photosystem II and nitrogenase that drive biogeochemical cycles to cytoskeletal assemblies and muscle fibers for motion. Such natural systems have inspired extensive efforts in the rational design of artificial protein assemblies in the last two decades. As molecular building blocks, proteins are highly complex, in terms of both their three-dimensional structures and chemical compositions. To enable control over the self-assembly of such complex molecules, scientists have devised many creative strategies by combining tools and principles of experimental and computational biophysics, supramolecular chemistry, inorganic chemistry, materials science, and polymer chemistry, among others. Owing to these innovative strategies, what started as a purely structure-building exercise two decades ago has, in short order, led to artificial protein assemblies with unprecedented structures and functions and protein-based materials with unusual properties. Our goal in this review is to give an overview of this exciting and highly interdisciplinary area of research, first outlining the design strategies and tools that have been devised for controlling protein self-assembly, then describing the diverse structures of artificial protein assemblies, and finally highlighting the emergent properties and functions of these assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Albert A. Kakkis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Alexander M. Hoffnagle
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Kenneth Han
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Yiying Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Zhiyin Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Tae Su Choi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Youjeong Na
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Chung-Jui Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - F. Akif Tezcan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
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6
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Sun R, Lim S. Protein cages as building blocks for superstructures. ENGINEERING BIOLOGY 2021; 5:35-42. [PMID: 36969478 PMCID: PMC9996708 DOI: 10.1049/enb2.12010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteins naturally self-assemble to function. Protein cages result from the self-assembly of multiple protein subunits that interact to form hollow symmetrical structures with functions that range from cargo storage to catalysis. Driven by self-assembly, building elegant higher-order superstructures with protein cages as building blocks has been an increasingly attractive field in recent years. It presents an engineering challenge not only at the molecular level but also at the supramolecular level. The higher-order constructs are proposed to provide access to diverse functional materials. Focussing on design strategy as a perspective, current work on protein cage supramolecular self-assembly are reviewed from three principles that are electrostatic, metal-ligand coordination and inherent symmetry. The review also summarises possible applications of the superstructure architecture built using modified protein cages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoxuan Sun
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore
| | - Sierin Lim
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore
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Rodríguez JM, Allende-Ballestero C, Cornelissen JJLM, Castón JR. Nanotechnological Applications Based on Bacterial Encapsulins. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:1467. [PMID: 34206092 PMCID: PMC8229669 DOI: 10.3390/nano11061467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Encapsulins are proteinaceous nanocontainers, constructed by a single species of shell protein that self-assemble into 20-40 nm icosahedral particles. Encapsulins are structurally similar to the capsids of viruses of the HK97-like lineage, to which they are evolutionarily related. Nearly all these nanocontainers encase a single oligomeric protein that defines the physiological role of the complex, although a few encapsulate several activities within a single particle. Encapsulins are abundant in bacteria and archaea, in which they participate in regulation of oxidative stress, detoxification, and homeostasis of key chemical elements. These nanocontainers are physically robust, contain numerous pores that permit metabolite flux through the shell, and are very tolerant of genetic manipulation. There are natural mechanisms for efficient functionalization of the outer and inner shell surfaces, and for the in vivo and in vitro internalization of heterologous proteins. These characteristics render encapsulin an excellent platform for the development of biotechnological applications. Here we provide an overview of current knowledge of encapsulin systems, summarize the remarkable toolbox developed by researchers in this field, and discuss recent advances in the biomedical and bioengineering applications of encapsulins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier M. Rodríguez
- Department of Structure of Macromolecules, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.M.R.); (C.A.-B.)
| | - Carolina Allende-Ballestero
- Department of Structure of Macromolecules, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.M.R.); (C.A.-B.)
| | - Jeroen J. L. M. Cornelissen
- Department of Molecules and Materials, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands;
| | - José R. Castón
- Department of Structure of Macromolecules, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.M.R.); (C.A.-B.)
- Nanobiotechnology Associated Unit CNB-CSIC-IMDEA, Campus Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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8
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Matsarskaia O, Roosen‐Runge F, Schreiber F. Multivalent ions and biomolecules: Attempting a comprehensive perspective. Chemphyschem 2020; 21:1742-1767. [PMID: 32406605 PMCID: PMC7496725 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202000162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ions are ubiquitous in nature. They play a key role for many biological processes on the molecular scale, from molecular interactions, to mechanical properties, to folding, to self-organisation and assembly, to reaction equilibria, to signalling, to energy and material transport, to recognition etc. Going beyond monovalent ions to multivalent ions, the effects of the ions are frequently not only stronger (due to the obviously higher charge), but qualitatively different. A typical example is the process of binding of multivalent ions, such as Ca2+ , to a macromolecule and the consequences of this ion binding such as compaction, collapse, potential charge inversion and precipitation of the macromolecule. Here we review these effects and phenomena induced by multivalent ions for biological (macro)molecules, from the "atomistic/molecular" local picture of (potentially specific) interactions to the more global picture of phase behaviour including, e. g., crystallisation, phase separation, oligomerisation etc. Rather than attempting an encyclopedic list of systems, we rather aim for an embracing discussion using typical case studies. We try to cover predominantly three main classes: proteins, nucleic acids, and amphiphilic molecules including interface effects. We do not cover in detail, but make some comparisons to, ion channels, colloidal systems, and synthetic polymers. While there are obvious differences in the behaviour of, and the relevance of multivalent ions for, the three main classes of systems, we also point out analogies. Our attempt of a comprehensive discussion is guided by the idea that there are not only important differences and specific phenomena with regard to the effects of multivalent ions on the main systems, but also important similarities. We hope to bridge physico-chemical mechanisms, concepts of soft matter, and biological observations and connect the different communities further.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Felix Roosen‐Runge
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biofilms-Research Center for Biointerfaces (BRCB), Faculty of Health and SocietyMalmö UniversitySweden
- Division of Physical ChemistryLund UniversitySweden
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9
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Künzle M, Lach M, Budiarta M, Beck T. Higher-Order Structures Based on Molecular Interactions for the Formation of Natural and Artificial Biomaterials. Chembiochem 2019; 20:1637-1641. [PMID: 30734442 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201800824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The assembly of molecular building blocks into highly ordered structures is crucial, both in nature and for the development of novel functional materials. In nature, noncovalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or hydrophobic interactions, enable the reversible assembly of biopolymers, such as DNA or proteins. Inspired by these design principles, scientists have created biohybrid materials that employ natural building blocks and their assembly properties. Thus, structures and materials are attainable that cannot be made through other synthetic procedures. Herein, we review current concepts and highlight recent advances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Künzle
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1a, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Marcel Lach
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1a, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Made Budiarta
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1a, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Tobias Beck
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1a, 52074, Aachen, Germany.,I3TM, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1a, 52074, Aachen, Germany.,JARA SOFT and JARA FIT, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 1a, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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10
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Künzle M, Lach M, Beck T. Multi‐Component Self‐Assembly of Proteins and Inorganic Particles: From Discrete Structures to Biomimetic Materials. Isr J Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.201900013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Künzle
- Institute of Inorganic ChemistryRWTH Aachen University Landoltweg 1a 52074 Aachen
| | - Marcel Lach
- Institute of Inorganic ChemistryRWTH Aachen University Landoltweg 1a 52074 Aachen
| | - Tobias Beck
- Institute of Inorganic ChemistryRWTH Aachen University Landoltweg 1a 52074 Aachen
- I3TMRWTH Aachen University 52074 Aachen
- JARA SOFT and JARA FIT, RWTHAachen University 52074 Aachen
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11
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Abstract
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Ordered
protein assemblies are attracting interest as next-generation
biomaterials with a remarkable range of structural and functional
properties, leading to potential applications in biocatalysis, materials
templating, drug delivery and vaccine development. This Review covers
ordered protein assemblies including protein nanowires/nanofibrils,
nanorings, nanotubes, designed two- and three-dimensional ordered
protein lattices and protein-like cages including polyhedral virus-like
cage structures. The main focus is on designed ordered protein assemblies,
in which the spatial organization of the proteins is controlled by
tailored noncovalent interactions (including metal ion binding interactions,
electrostatic interactions and ligand–receptor interactions
among others) or by careful design of modified (mutant) proteins or de novo constructs. The modification of natural protein
assemblies including bacterial S-layers and cage-like and rod-like
viruses to impart novel function, e.g. enzymatic activity, is also
considered. A diversity of structures have been created using distinct
approaches, and this Review provides a summary of the state-of-the-art
in the development of these systems, which have exceptional potential
as advanced bionanomaterials for a diversity of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian W Hamley
- Department of Chemistry , University of Reading , Whiteknights , Reading RG6 6AD , United Kingdom
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