Chemical Constituents and Anti-inflammatory Principles from the Fruits of Forsythia suspensa

Discovery of a novel C2-functionalized chromen-4-one scaffold for the development of p38α MAPK signaling inhibitors to mitigate neutrophilic inflammatory responses

Neutrophil dysregulation is implicated in a spectrum of inflammatory pathologies, suggesting the potential for targeting neutrophilic hyperactivation as a pharmacological strategy to manage inflammatory disorders. Building upon prior research where 2-thiolphenoxychromone derivatives were found to inhibit neutrophilic generation of superoxide anions, this study focused on exploring the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of different C2 bridging moieties and anti-inflammatory effects using bioisosteric replacements and scaffold-hopping approaches. Among various chemotypes, the N-(4-oxo-4H-chromen-2-yl)benzenesulfonamide derivatives emerged as robust inhibitors of both superoxide anion generation and elastase release from fMLF-activated human neutrophils, with IC50 values in the single-digit micromolar range. Leveraging a forward pharmacology approach through computational prediction, compound 15b, a representative within this active molecular class, was discovered to exert these anti-inflammatory functions by blocking the p38α mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade. This responded to a significant reduction in p38α MAPK and its downstream MK2 phosphorylation in activated neutrophils treated with 15b, with no apparent impact on extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and protein kinase B (AKT) phosphorylation levels. Additionally, this molecule exhibited inhibitory potential on intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, granule exocytosis, and chemotactic responses. Collectively, this study provides a novel skeleton for the development of inhibitors targeting the p38α MAPK pathway to mitigate neutrophilic inflammation.

Characterisation of an edible active film prepared from bacterial nanocellulose/forsythia essential oil Pickering emulsions with funoran and its application in fresh meat

This study sought to develop an edible active film by integrating Pickering emulsions of forsythia essential oil and bacterial nanofibers at various concentrations into a film-forming matrix composed of funoran (F). The stability of the emulsions was evaluated through examination of the micro-morphology, particle size and distribution, 7-day emulsification index, and embedding rate of the Pickering emulsions. Subsequently, selected Pickering emulsions were incorporated into F to generate the edible active film. Scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy revealed that the Pickering emulsion was uniformly distributed throughout the F film, interconnected by hydrogen bonds. X-ray Diffraction spectra exhibited changes in peak intensity and shifts in position attributable to the edible active film. Pickering emulsion had a minimal impact on thermal stability. The film's tensile strength significantly increased, while elongation at break decreased. The heightened concentration of hydroxyl groups in the film led to increased thickness, reduced moisture content, and enhanced hygroscopicity. The edible active film exhibited superior antioxidant and antibacterial properties, thereby more efficiently shielding against oxygen and water vapour. In preservation tests involving chicken and lamb, the Pickering emulsion led to elevations in pH, total volatile basic nitrogen, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance levels in the meat.

The phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, quality control, and toxicity of Forsythiae Fructus: An updated systematic review

Forsythiae Fructus (FF), the dried fruit of F. suspensa, is commonly used to treat fever, inflammation, etc in China or other Asian countries. FF is usually used as the core herb in traditional Chinese medicine preparations for the treatment of influenza, such as Shuang-huang-lian oral liquid and Yin-qiao powder, etc. Since the wide application and core role of FF, its research progress was summarized in terms of traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, quality control, and toxicity. Meanwhile, the anti-influenza substances and mechanism of FF were emphasized. Till now, a total of 290 chemical components are identified in F. suspensa, and among them, 248 components were isolated and identified from FF, including 42 phenylethanoid glycosides, 48 lignans, 59 terpenoids, 14 flavonoids, 3 steroids, 24 cyclohexyl ethanol derivatives, 14 alkaloids, 26 organic acids, and 18 other types. FF and their pure compounds have the pharmacological activities of anti-virus, anti-inflammation, anti-oxidant, anti-bacteria, anti-tumor, neuroprotection, hepatoprotection, etc. Inhibition of TLR7, RIG-I, MAVS, NF-κB, MyD88 signaling pathway were the reported anti-influenza mechanisms of FF and phenylethanoid glycosides and lignans are the main active groups. However, the bioavailability of phenylethanoid glycosides and lignans of FF in vivo was low, which needed to be improved. Simultaneously, the un-elucidated compounds and anti-influenza substances of FF strongly needed to be explored. The current quality control of FF was only about forsythoside A and phillyrin, more active components should be taken into consideration. Moreover, there are no reports of toxicity of FF yet, but the toxicity of FF should be not neglected in clinical applications.

The genus Actinidia Lindl. (Actinidiaceae): A comprehensive review on its ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Actinidia Lindl. belongs to the family Actinidiaceae. Plants of this genus are popularly known as kiwifruits and are traditionally used to treat a wide range of ailments associated with digestive disorders, rheumatism, kidney problems, cardiovascular system, cancers, dyspepsia, hemorrhoids, and diabetes among others.

AIM

This review discusses the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical profile, and known pharmacological properties of Actinidia plants, to understand their connotations and provide the scientific basis for future studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The data were obtained by surveying journal articles, books, and dissertations using various search engines such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Springer Link, and Web of Science. The online databases; World Flora Online, Plants of the World Online, International Plant Names Index, and Global Biodiversity Information Facility were used to confirm the distribution and validate scientific names of Actinidia plants. The isolated metabolites from these species were illustrated using ChemBio Draw ultra-version 14.0 software.

RESULTS

Ten (10) species of Actinidia genus have been reported as significant sources of traditional medicines utilized to remedy diverse illnesses. Our findings revealed that a total of 873 secondary metabolites belonging to different classes such as terpenoids, phenolic compounds, alcohols, ketones, organic acids, esters, hydrocarbons, and steroids have been isolated from different species of Actinidia. These compounds were mainly related to the exhibited antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antiproliferative, anti-angiogenic, anticinoceptive, anti-tumor, and anticancer activities.

CONCLUSION

This study assessed the information related to the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical compounds, and pharmacological properties of Actinidia species, which indicate that they possess diverse bioactive metabolites with interesting bioactivities. Actinidia plants have great potential for applications in folklore medicines and pharmaceuticals due to their wide ethnomedicinal uses and biological activities. Traditional uses of several Actinidia species are supported by scientific evidences, qualifying them as possible modern remedies for various ailments. Nonetheless, the currently available data has several gaps in understanding the herbal utilization of most Actinidia species. Thus, further research into their toxicity, mechanisms of actions of the isolated bioactive metabolites, as well as scientific connotations between the traditional medicinal uses and pharmacological properties is required to unravel their efficacy in therapeutic potential for safe clinical application.

An integrated approach for studying the metabolic profiling of herbal medicine in mice using high-resolution mass spectrometry and metabolomics data processing tools

Analysis of exposure to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in vivo based on mass spectrometry is helpful for the screening of effective ingredients of TCM and the development of new drugs. The method of screening biomarkers through metabolomics technology is a nontargeted research method to explore the differential components between two sets of biological samples. By taking this advantage, this study aims to takes Forsythia suspensa, which is a TCM also known as Lian Qiao (LQ), as the research object and to study its in vivo exposure by using metabolomics technology. By comparing the significant differences between biological samples before and after administration, it could be focused on the components that were significantly upregulated, where a complete set of analysis strategies for nontargeted TCM in vivo exposure mass spectrometry was established. Furthermore, the threshold parameters for peak extraction, parameter selection during statistical data analysis, and sample concentration multiples in this method have also been optimized. More interestingly, by using the established analysis strategy, we found 393 LQ-related chemical components in mice after administration, including 102 prototypes and 291 LQ-related metabolites, and plotted their metabolic profiles in vivo. In short, this study has obtained a complete mass spectrum of LQ exposure in mice in vivo for the first time, which provides a reference for research on the active ingredients of LQ in vivo. More importantly, compared with other methods, the analysis strategy of nontargeted exposure of TCM in vivo-based mass spectrometry, constructed by using this research method, has good universality and does not require self-developed postprocessing software. It is worth mentioning that, for the identification and characterization of trace amounts of metabolites in vivo, this analysis strategy has no discrimination and has a detection capability similar to that of highly exposed components.

Characterization of Terpenoids from the Ambrosia Beetle Symbiont and Laurel Wilt Pathogen Harringtonia lauricola

Little is known concerning terpenoids produced by members of the fungal order Ophiostomales, with the member Harringtonia lauricola having the unique lifestyle of being a beetle symbiont but potentially devastating tree pathogen. Nine known terpenoids, including six labdane diterpenoids (1-6) and three hopane triterpenes (7-9), were isolated from H. lauricola ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extracts for the first time. All compounds were tested for various in vitro bioactivities. Six compounds, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9, are described functionally. Compounds 2, 4, 5, and 9 expressed potent antiproliferative activity against the MCF-7, HepG2 and A549 cancer cell lines, with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) ~12.54-26.06 μM. Antimicrobial activity bioassays revealed that compounds 4, 5, and 9 exhibited substantial effects against Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Ralstonia solanacearum) with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values between 3.13 and 12.50 μg/mL. Little activity was seen towards Gram-positive bacteria for any of the compounds, whereas compounds 2, 4, 7, and 9 expressed antifungal activities (Fusarium oxysporum) with MIC values ranging from 6.25 to 25.00 μg/mL. Compounds 4, 5, and 9 also displayed free radical scavenging abilities towards 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and superoxide (O2-), with IC50 values of compounds 2, 4, and 6 ~3.45-14.04 μg/mL and 22.87-53.31 μg/mL towards DPPH and O2-, respectively. These data provide an insight into the biopharmaceutical potential of terpenoids from this group of fungal insect symbionts and plant pathogens.

Extraction Techniques and Analytical Methods for Isolation and Characterization of Lignans

Lignans are a group of natural polyphenols present in medicinal plants and in plants which are a part of the human diet for which more and more pharmacological activities, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and cytoprotective, are being reported. However, it is their cytotoxic activities that are best understood and which have shed light on this group. Two anticancer drugs, etoposide, and teniposide, were derived from a potent cytotoxic agent—podophyllotoxin from the roots of Podophyllum peltatum. The evidence from clinical and observational studies suggests that human microbiota metabolites (enterolactone, enterodiol) of dietary lignans (secoisolariciresinol, pinoresinol, lariciresinol, matairesinol, syringaresinol, medioresinol, and sesamin) are associated with a reduced risk of some hormone-dependent cancers. The biological in vitro, pharmacological in vivo investigations, and clinical studies demand significant amounts of pure compounds, as well as the use of well-defined and standardized extracts. That is why proper extract preparation, optimization of lignan extraction, and identification are crucial steps in the development of lignan use in medicine. This review focuses on lignan extraction, purification, fractionation, separation, and isolation methods, as well as on chromatographic, spectrometric, and spectroscopic techniques for their qualitative and quantitative analysis.

Phillygenin ameliorates nonalcoholic fatty liver disease via TFEB-mediated lysosome biogenesis and lipophagy

BACKGROUND

Lipophagy is an autophagic process, which delivers the intracellular lipid droplets to the lysosomes for degradation. Recent studies revealed that the impairment of lysosomal biogenesis and autophagic flux led to dysregulation of lipophagy in hepatocytes, which exacerbated the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Therefore, agents restoring autophagic flux and lipophagy in hepatocytes may have therapeutic potential against this increasingly prevalent disease. Phillygenin (PHI), a lignin extracted from Forsythia suspense, exerts hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the effect of PHI on NAFLD remains unknown.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of PHI on NAFLD and elucidate the underlying mechanism.

METHODS

The effects of PHI were examined in palmitate (PA)-stimulated AML12 cells and primary hepatocytes, as well as in NAFLD mice induced by a high-fat diet (HFD). We also used transcription factor EB (TFEB) knockdown hepatocytes and hepatocyte-specific TFEB knockout (TFEB^Δhep) mice for mechanistic studies. In vivo and in vitro studies were performed using western blots, immunofluorescence techniques, and transmission electron microscopy.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that autophagic flux and lysosome biogenesis in PA-stimulated hepatocytes were impaired. PHI alleviated lipid deposition by increasing lysosomal biogenesis and autophagic flux. It also stimulated the release of endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ to activate calcineurin, which regulated TFEB dephosphorylation and nuclear translocation, and promoted lysosomal biogenesis. In addition, PHI blocked the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway and improved hepatocyte inflammation in an autophagy-dependent manner. Consistent with the in vitro results, PHI improved hepatic steatosis and inflammation in HFD mice, but these beneficial effects were eliminated in hepatocyte-specific TFEB knockout mice.

CONCLUSION

Despite PHI has been reported to have anti-hepatic fibrosis effects, whether it has a hepatoprotective effects against NAFLD and the underlying molecular mechanism remain unclear. Herein, we found that PHI restored lipophagy and suppressed lipid accumulation and inflammation by regulating the Ca²⁺-calcineurin-TFEB axis in hepatocytes. Thus, PHI represents a therapeutic candidate for the treatment of NAFLD.

A new ent-clerodane diterpene from Detarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr. and its protective potential for osteoporosis

A new clerodane diterpene, named 6α-hydroxy-3,13E-clerodien-15-oic acid (1), together with a known clerodane diterpene (2), four known labdane diterpenes (3-6), a triterpenoid (7), a known steroid (8), and two benzenoid compounds (9 and 10) were isolated from Detarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr. The structures of all obtained compounds were determined by chemical properties and spectroscopic evidence, accompanied by comparisons with data in the literature. Electronic circular dichroism (ECD) was performed for compounds 1-4 to confirm the absolute configuration. Compounds 1-3 and 8-10 were evaluated for the protective effect on osteoblasts. Compound 1 was observed to increase the proliferation of dexamethasone (DEX)-treated MC3T3-E1 cells significantly at 1 μM, which was comparable with the positive control geniposide at 10 μM. The results were further confirmed by flow cytometry analysis. In addition, compound 1 increased the level of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and mineralization in osteoblasts inhibited by DEX. Moreover, Compound 9 (vanillic acid) showed a pronounced inhibition (IC₅₀ 6.5 ± 0.6 μM) on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and 10 (4-O-methyl gallic acid) showed a good inhibition with IC₅₀ as 103.3 ± 2.2 μM, compared with the standard drug ibuprofen (IC₅₀ 54.2 ± 9.2 μM). Besides, compounds 1-3 and 8-10 were non-cytotoxic against MCF-7, NCI-H460, Hela, and BJ cell lines.

A novel strategy by integrating chemical profiling, molecular networking, chemical isolation, and activity evaluation to target isolation of potential anti-ACE2 candidates in Forsythiae Fructus

BACKGROUND

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is regarded as a large database containing hundreds to thousands of chemical constituents that can be further developed as clinical drugs, such as artemisinin in Artemisia annua. However, effectively exploring novel candidates is still a challenge faced by researchers.

PURPOSE

In this work, an integrated strategy combining chemical profiling, molecular networking, chemical isolation, and activity evaluation (CMCA strategy) was proposed and applied to systematically characterize and screen novel candidates, and Forsythiae fructus (FF) was used as an example.

STUDY DESIGN

It contained four parts. First, the chemical compounds in FF were detected by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC/Q-TOF MS) with data-dependent acquisition, and further, the targeted compounds were screened out based on an in-house database. In the meantime, the representative MS/MS fragmentation behaviors of different chemical structure types were summarized. Second, homologous constituents were grouped and organized based on feature-guided molecular networking, and the nontargeted components with homologous mass fragmentation behaviors were characterized. Third, the novel compounds were isolated and unambiguously identified by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Finally, the anti-angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) activities of isolated chemical constituents were further evaluated by in vitro experiments.

RESULTS

A total of 278 compounds were profiled in FF, including 151 targeted compounds and 127 nontargeted compounds. Among them, 16 were unambitiously identified by comparison with reference standards. Moreover, 25 were classified into potential novel compounds. Two novel compounds were unambiguously identified by using conventional chromatographic methods, and they were named phillyrigeninside D (peak 254) and forsythenside O (peak 155). Furthermore, the ACE2 activity of the compounds in FF was evaluated by modern pharmacological methods, and among them, suspensaside A was confirmed to present obvious anti-ACE2 activity.

CONCLUSION

Our work provides meaningful information for revealing potential FF candidates for the treatment of COVID-19, along with new insight for exploring novel candidates from complex systems.

Meso-Dihydroguaiaretic Acid Ameliorates Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome through Inhibiting Neutrophilic Inflammation and Scavenging Free Radical

The pathogenesis of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is very complex. Patients with ARDS still suffer high mortality rates. Infiltration and activation of neutrophils in lungs are critical pathogenic factors in ARDS. In this study, we demonstrate that meso-dihydroguaiaretic acid (MDGA), a natural lignan, inhibits inflammatory responses in human neutrophils and ameliorates ARDS in mice. MDGA inhibited superoxide anion generation and elastase release in various G-protein coupled receptor agonists-induced human neutrophils. However, MDGA did not alter superoxide anion generation and elastase activity in cell-free systems. These results suggest that the anti-inflammatory effects of MDGA are mediated by regulating cellular signals in human neutrophils. In consistent with this, MDGA suppressed phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase in activated human neutrophils. Moreover, MDGA inhibited CD11b expression and adhesion in activated human neutrophils. Interestingly, MDGA reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation but not superoxide anion generation in protein kinase C (PKC) activator-induced human neutrophils, suggesting that MDGA may also have ROS scavenging ability. Indeed, MDGA showed strong free radical scavenging activity in cell-free assays. Significantly, MDGA suppressed PKC-induced neutrophil extracellular trap formation. Additionally, treatment of MDGA attenuated neutrophil infiltration and lung damage on lipopolysaccharide-induced ARDS in mice. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that MDGA has anti-neutrophilic inflammatory effects and free-radical scavenging activity. We also suggest that MDGA has potential to serve as a lead for developing new therapeutics to treat ARDS.

Advances in Research on Chemical Constituents and Their Biological Activities of the Genus Actinidia

Kiwi, a fruit from plants of the genus Actinidia, is one of the famous fruits with thousand years of edible history. In the past twenty years, a great deal of research has been done on the chemical constituents of the Actinidia species. A large number of secondary metabolites including triterpenoids, flavonoids, phenols, etc. have been identified from differents parts of Actinidia plants, which exhibited significant in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-oxidative, anti-bacterial, and anti-diabetic activities. In order to fully understand the chemical components and biological activities of Actinidia plants, and to improve their further research, development and utilization, this review summarizes the compounds extracted from different parts of Actinidia plants since 1959 to 2020, classifies the types of constituents, reports on the pharmacological activities of relative compounds and medicinal potentials.

Secondary Metabolites from the Fresh Leaves of Pinus yunnanensis Franch

Fifteen metabolites, including two flavonols (1-2), three lignans (3-5), and ten diterpenoids (6-15), were isolated from the leaves of Pinus yunnanensis. Among them, flavanonol (1) were identified as undescribed flavonol derivative with natural rarely B-ring fission lactone. Massive spectroscopic methods, the DP4+ probabilities and CD/ECD calculations were applied to establish the structure of component 1. Among these compounds, taxifolin (2) showed potent cytotoxicity, having IC₅₀ values from 21.33 to 45.48 μg/mL, it also showed broad antibacterial activity against human pathogens with MIC values from 32 to 64 μg/mL.

Tissue-Specific Accumulation and Isomerization of Valuable Phenylethanoid Glycosides from Plantago and Forsythia Plants

A comparative phytochemical study on the phenylethanoid glycoside (PhEG) composition of the underground organs of three Plantago species (P. lanceolata, P. major, and P. media) and that of the fruit wall and seed parts of Forsythia suspensa and F. europaea fruits was performed. The leaves of these Forsythia species and six cultivars of the hybrid F. × intermedia were also analyzed, demonstrating the tissue-specific accumulation and decomposition of PhEGs. Our analyses confirmed the significance of selected tissues as new and abundant sources of these valuable natural compounds. The optimized heat treatment of tissues containing high amounts of the PhEG plantamajoside (PM) or forsythoside A (FA), which was performed in distilled water, resulted in their characteristic isomerizations. In addition to PM and FA, high amounts of the isomerization products could also be isolated after heat treatment. The isomerization mechanisms were elucidated by molecular modeling, and the structures of PhEGs were identified by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS) techniques, also confirming the possibility of discriminating regioisomeric PhEGs by tandem MS. The PhEGs showed no cytostatic activity in non-human primate Vero E6 cells, supporting their safe use as natural medicines and allowing their antiviral potency to be tested.

Forsythiaside a plays an anti-inflammatory role in LPS-induced mastitis in a mouse model by modulating the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways

Forsythiaside A, a major bioactive component extracted from Forsythiae fructus, possesses multiple biological properties, especially anti-inflammatory properties. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory effect of forsythiaside A was investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute mastitis in mice. Our results showed that the expression levels of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, p38 MAPK, IκBα, and NF-κB p65 in the LPS group were all up-regulated, and obvious pathological changes were observed by sectioning. Compared with those in the LPS group, the expression levels of the above factors were significantly reduced, and the inflammation symptoms were also significantly reduced by section observation after forsythiaside A intervention. These results indicated that forsythiaside A effectively inhibited LPS-induced mammary inflammation in mice by attenuating the activation of the NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways.

Mutagenic and teratogenic toxicity evaluation of Forsythia suspensa leaves aqueous extract

Forsythia suspensa leaves (FSL), rich in phillyrin, forsythiaside A, phillygenin, rutin, and other compounds, is a known traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). It has been effective in heat retreat and detoxification. In this study, we performed the mutagenic and teratogenic toxicity evaluation of FSL aqueous extract (FSLAE) using the bacterial reverse mutation assay (Ames test), mouse bone marrow micronucleus assay, spermatocyte chromosomal aberration assay in mice. Kunming mice and SD rats were used were for the mutagenic and the teratogenic studies, respectively. We found that FSLAE was not mutagenic and did not induce unfavorable chromosomal events. Additionally, the Ames test revealed FSLAE was not genotoxic and showed no mutagenic activity in histidine dependent strains of Salmonella typhimurium at concentrations up to 5000 μg/plate. Likewise, in vivo test revealed no induced micronucleus of mouse bone marrow or chromosome aberration in spermatocytes up to the dose of 10.00 g/kg BW. For the teratogenic evaluations, pregnant rats were treated with 1.04, 2.08, and 4.17 g/kg FSL, and fetuses were examined on the 6-15 day of pregnancy. We observed no maternal toxicity and embryotoxicity related to the treatment. Based on these in vitro and in vivo studies, we concluded the genotoxic and teratogenic safety of FSL.

A new diterpernoid glycoside from the fruit of Forsythia suspensa

One new diterpernoid glycoside, lanceolatinoside A (1), together with one known iridoid glycoside, luzonoside C (2) were isolated from the fruit of Forsythia suspensa. The structure of the new compound (1) was elucidated through 1 D and 2 D NMR spectroscopic data, and HR-ESIMS. Compound 2 was identified as luzonoside C (2) on the basis of NMR spectroscopic data analyses and comparison with those reported in the literature.

Bioactive Constituents from the Bryophyta Hypnum plumaeforme

Chemical investigation of the secondary metabolites of the whole plant of bryophyte Hypnum plumaeforme Wilson led to the isolation of a new pimarane-type diterpenoid, momilactone F (1), along with seventeen known compounds. Their chemical structures were elucidated based on massive spectroscopic data. The allelopathic and antifungal properties were evaluated. Among them, momilactone F (1), acrenol (2),^[11] momilactones A (3) and B (4) showed significant allelopathic activity against Samolus parviflorus Raf. and Lactuca sativa L. var. angustana Irish, as well as selected antifungal property against crop pathogenic fungi strains. On the other hand, 8(14)-podocarpen-13-on-18-oic acid (8) exhibited strong promoting activity on the growth of L. sativa L. var. angustana Irish. The present investigation provided new insights for developing of H. plumaeforme for further application as a potential agricultural tool.

Phytochemical Investigation and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of the Leaves of Machilus japonica var. kusanoi

In a series of anti-inflammatory screenings of lauraceous plants, the methanolic extract of the leaves of Machilus japonica var. kusanoi (Hayata) J.C. Liao showed potent inhibition on both superoxide anion generation and elastase release in human neutrophils. Bioassay-guided fractionation of the leaves of M. japonica var. kusanoi led to the isolation of twenty compounds, including six new butanolides, machinolides A–F (1–6), and fourteen known compounds (7–20). Their structures were characterized by 1D and 2D NMR, UV, IR, CD, and MS data. The absolute configuration of the new compounds were unambiguously confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analyses (1, 2, and 3) and Mosher’s method (4, 5, and 6). In addition, lignans, (+)-eudesmin (11), (+)-methylpiperitol (12), (+)-pinoresinol (13), and (+)-galbelgin (16) exhibited inhibitory effects on N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine/cytochalasin B (fMLP/CB)-induced superoxide anion generation in human neutrophils with IC₅₀ values of 8.71 ± 0.74 μM, 2.23 ± 0.92 μM, 6.81 ± 1.07 μM, and 7.15 ± 2.26 μM, respectively. The results revealed the anti-inflammatory potentials of Formosan Machilus japonica var. kusanoi.

Two new furofuran lignan glycoside derivatives from the fruit of Forsythia suspensa

Phytochemical investigation of 95% ethanol extract of the fruit of Forsythia suspensa resulted in the isolation of two new furofuran lignan glycoside derivatives pinoresinoside A (1) and phillyrigeninside A (2), along with three known ones. Their structures were established based on extensive spectroscopic data analyses and comparison with literature data. Absolute configuration of 1 was determined by CD method. In addition, compounds 1 and 2 were revealed to show in vitro cytotoxicity against human tumor cell lines (SGC-7901, MCF-7 and HepG2), with IC₅₀ values ranging from 16.77 to 37.35 µM. [Formula: see text].

Labdane diterpenoids from Forsythia suspensa with anti-inflammatory and anti-viral activities

Five previously undescribed labdane diterpenoids, named Forsypensins A-E, were isolated from the fruits of Forsythia suspensa. The structures and relative configurations of the compounds were elucidated via extensive spectroscopic methods, and their absolute configurations were fully confirmed by single crystal X-ray diffraction analyses using Cu Kα radiation and electronic circular dichroism data. The five labdane diterpenoids showed in vitro anti-inflammatory activity in rat polymorphonuclear leukocytes, inhibiting the rates of β-glucuronidase release by 43.6%-49.2% at concentrations of 10 μM. The compounds also had anti-viral activity against influenza A (H1N1) virus and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), with IC₅₀ values in the range 21.8-27.4 μM, and EC₅₀ values in the range 10.5-15.4 μM, respectively.

Unraveling Plant Natural Chemical Diversity for Drug Discovery Purposes

The screening and testing of extracts against a variety of pharmacological targets in order to benefit from the immense natural chemical diversity is a concern in many laboratories worldwide. And several successes have been recorded in finding new actives in natural products, some of which have become new drugs or new sources of inspiration for drugs. But in view of the vast amount of research on the subject, it is surprising that not more drug candidates were found. In our view, it is fundamental to reflect upon the approaches of such drug discovery programs and the technical processes that are used, along with their inherent difficulties and biases. Based on an extensive survey of recent publications, we discuss the origin and the variety of natural chemical diversity as well as the strategies to having the potential to embrace this diversity. It seemed to us that some of the difficulties of the area could be related with the technical approaches that are used, so the present review begins with synthetizing some of the more used discovery strategies, exemplifying some key points, in order to address some of their limitations. It appears that one of the challenges of natural product-based drug discovery programs should be an easier access to renewable sources of plant-derived products. Maximizing the use of the data together with the exploration of chemical diversity while working on reasonable supply of natural product-based entities could be a way to answer this challenge. We suggested alternative ways to access and explore part of this chemical diversity with in vitro cultures. We also reinforced how important it was organizing and making available this worldwide knowledge in an "inventory" of natural products and their sources. And finally, we focused on strategies based on synthetic biology and syntheses that allow reaching industrial scale supply. Approaches based on the opportunities lying in untapped natural plant chemical diversity are also considered.

Aqueous extract of Forsythia viridissima fruits: Acute oral toxicity and genotoxicity studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Forsythia viridissima fruit, one of Forsythiae Fructus (FF) is widely used in traditional medicine to treat diverse diseases-related clinical symptoms, including fever, pain, vomiting, nausea, and abscess. However, the safety of FF has not been fully assessed.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we evaluated the acute oral toxicity and genotoxic potential of an aqueous extract of Forsythia viridissima fruits (EFVF).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For an acute oral toxicity test, male and female SD rats (n = 5) orally received a single dose of 5000 mg/kg EFVF. The genotoxic potential of EFVF was evaluated with a battery of tests, including an in vitro bacterial reverse mutation test using five mutant strains of Salmonella typhimurium (TA100, TA1535, TA98, TA1537) and Escherichia coli (WP2 uvrA), an in vitro chromosomal aberration test using Chinese hamster lung (CHL/IU) cells, and an in vivo micronucleus test using bone marrow cells in male ICR mice that were orally administered EFVF. All tests were completed in compliance with Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development guidelines and/or regional regulatory standards for toxicity tests.

RESULTS

In the acute oral toxicity test, the animals did not show any significant mortality and body weight changes for 14 days following a single dose of EFVF at 5000 mg/kg. There was no evidence of genotoxicity of EFVF based on the results of the in vitro bacterial reverse mutation test (up to 5000 μg/plate), the in vivo micronucleus test (up to 5000 mg/kg), and the in vitro chromosomal aberration test (1100-2500 μg/mL).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that EFVF is safe with regard to acute toxicity in rats as well as genotoxicity such as mutagenesis or clastogenesis under the present experimental conditions. These results might support the safety of EFVF as a potential therapeutic material for the traditional use or pharmaceutical development.

Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System of Phillygenin: Formulation Development, Characterization and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation

Phillygenin, as an active ingredient of Forsythia suspensa, possesses a wide range of biological and pharmacological activity. However, its development and application are restricted due to its poor bioavailability and low solubility. Our work aimed to develop a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system to improve the oral bioavailability of phillygenin. The composition of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system was preliminary screened by the pseudo-ternary phase diagram. Subsequently, the central composite design method was employed to optimize the prescription of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system loaded with phillygenin. The prepared self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin was characterized in terms of morphology, droplet size distribution, polydispersity index and stability. Then, the in vitro dissolution and the oral bioavailability were analyzed. The optimized self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin consisted of 27.8% Labrafil M1944CS, 33.6% Cremophor EL, 38.6% polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG-400) and 10.2 mg/g phillygenin loading. The prepared self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin exhibited spherical and uniform droplets with small size (40.11 ± 0.74 nm) and satisfactory stability. The in vitro dissolution experiment indicated that the cumulative dissolution rate of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin was significantly better than that of free phillygenin. Furthermore, after oral administration in rats, the bioavailability of phillygenin was significantly enhanced by the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system. The relative bioavailability of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin was 588.7% compared to the phillygenin suspension. These findings suggest that the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin can be a promising oral drug delivery system to improve the absorption of phillygenin.

Kan-Lu-Hsiao-Tu-Tan, a traditional Chinese medicine formula, inhibits human neutrophil activation and ameliorates imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kan-Lu-Hsiao-Tu-Tan (KLHTT) is a popular traditional Chinese medicine for treating various inflammatory diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the present study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of KLHTT on human neutrophils and its therapeutic potential in treating imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Spectrophotometry, flow cytometry, and microscopy with immunohistochemical staining were used to evaluate superoxide anion generation, elastase release, CD11b expression, adhesion, and neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation in activated human neutrophils. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species in cell-free systems were measured using a multi-well fluorometer or a spectrophotometer. A psoriasis-like skin inflammation was induced in mice using the IMQ cream.

RESULTS

KLHTT suppressed superoxide anion generation, ROS production, CD11b expression, and adhesion in activated human neutrophils. In contrast, KLHTT failed to alter elastase release in activated human neutrophils. Additionally, KLHTT had an ROS-scavenging effect in the AAPH assay, but it did not scavenge superoxide anions directly in the xanthine/xanthine oxidase assay. Protein kinase C (PKC)-induced NET formation most commonly occurs through ROS-dependent mechanisms. KLHTT significantly inhibited phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, a PKC activator, inducing NET formation. Furthermore, topical KLHTT treatment reduced the area affected by psoriasis area and severity index (PASI) score and ameliorated neutrophil infiltration in IMQ-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data show that KLHTT has anti-neutrophilic inflammatory effects in inhibiting ROS generation and cell adhesion. KLHTT also mitigated NET formation, mainly via an ROS-dependent pathway. In addition, KLHTT reduced neutrophil infiltration and improved the severity of IMQ-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in mice. Therefore, KLHTT may prove to be a safe and effective psoriasis therapy in the future.

Bioassay-guided purification of sesquiterpenoids from the fruiting bodies of Fomitopsis pinicola and their anti-inflammatory activity

Twelve undescribed sesquiterpenoids, fomitopins A-L (1-12), were isolated via bioassay-guided purification from the bracket fungus Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.) P. Karst, and this fungus have been reported to exhibit anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory activities. The structures of 1-12 were elucidated by spectroscopic and spectrometric analyses and their absolute configurations were further confirmed by ECD simulations. Ten isolated compounds were evaluated for their anti-inflammatory potential and compound 11 exhibited the most significant inhibition of superoxide anion generation and elastase release with IC50 values of 0.81 ± 0.15 and 0.74 ± 0.12 μM. These newly purified sesquiterpenoids could be potential candidates for further anti-inflammatory studies.

Human disorders associated with inflammation and the evolving role of natural products to overcome

Inflammation is a biological function which triggered after the mechanical tissue disruption or from the responses by the incidence of physical, chemical or biological negotiator in body. These responses are essential act provided by the immune system during infection and tissue injury to maintain normal tissue homeostasis. Inflammation is a quite complicated process at molecular level with the involvement of several proinflammatory expressions. Several health problems are associated with prolonged inflammation, which effects nearly all major to minor diseases. The molecular and epidemiological studies jagged that the inflammation is closely associated with several disorders with their specific targets. It would be great achievement for human health around the world to overcome on inflammation. Mostly used anti-inflammatory drugs are at high risk of side effects and also expensive. Hence, the plant-based formulations gained a wide acceptance by the public and medical experts to treat it. Due to extensive dispersal, chemical diversity and systematically established biological potentials of natural products have induced renewed awareness as a gifted source for medications. However, today's urgent need to search for cheaper, more potent and safe anti-inflammatory medications to overcome on current situation. The goal of this review to compile an update on inflammation, associated diseases, molecular targets, inflammatory mediators and role of natural products. The entire text concise the involvement of various cytokines in pathogenesis of various human disorders. This assignment discussed about 321 natural products with their promising anti-inflammatory potential discovered during January 2009 to December 2018 with 262 citations.

Neuroprotective Effects of an Aqueous Extract of Forsythia viridissima and Its Major Constituents on Oxaliplatin-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy

The dried fruits of Forsythia viridissima have been prescribed to relive fever, pain, vomiting, and nausea in traditional medicine. Oxaliplatin (LOHP) is used to treat advanced colorectal cancer; however, it frequently induces peripheral neuropathies. This study was done to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of an aqueous extract of Forsythia viridissima fruits (EFVF) and its major constituents. Chemical constituents from EFVF were characterized and quantified with the UHPLC-diode array detector method, and three major constituents were identified as arctiin, matairesinol, and arctigenin. The in vitro cytotoxicity was measured by the Ez-cytox viability assay, and the in vivo neuroprotection activity was evaluated by a von Frey test in two rodent animal models that were administered LOHP. EFVF significantly alleviated the LOHP-induced mechanical hypersensitivity in the induction model. EFVF also prevented the induction of mechanical hyperalgesia by LOHP in the pre- and co-treatment of LOHP and EFVF. Consistently, EFVF exerted protective effects against LOHP-induced neurotoxicity as well as inhibited neurite outgrowths in PC12 and dorsal root ganglion cells. Among the major components of EFVF, arctigenin and matairesinol exerted protective effects against LOHP-induced neurotoxicity. Therefore, EFVF may be useful for relieving or preventing LOHP-induced peripheral neuropathy in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy with LOHP.

Iridoid, phenylethanoid and flavonoid glycosides from Forsythia suspensa

As part of our continuing efforts to explore bioactive compounds from natural resources, a new iridoid glycoside, adoxosidic acid-6'-oleuroperic ester (1), together with one known phenylethanoid glycoside (2) and two known flavonoid glycosides (3-4) were isolated from the fruit of Forsythia suspensa. The structure of the new compound (1) was elucidated through 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data and HR-ESIMS. Interestingly, compound 1 was a monoterpene ester of one iridoid glycoside. Compounds 2-4 were identified as calceolarioside A (2), kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (3), kampferol-3-O-robinobioside (4) on the basis of NMR spectroscopic data analyses and comparison with the data reported in the literature. The antiviral activity aganisist influenza A (H5N1) virus of compound 1 was studied as well.

Diterpenoids of terrestrial origin

This review covers the isolation and chemistry of diterpenoids from terrestrial sources from 2017.

Forsythoside A Modulates Zymosan-Induced Peritonitis in Mice

Acute inflammation is a protective response of the host to physical injury and invading infection. Timely treatment of acute inflammatory reactions is essential to prevent damage to organisms that can eventually lead to chronic inflammation. Forsythoside A (FTA), an active constituent of Forsythia suspensa, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties. Despite increasing knowledge of its anti-inflammatory effects, the mechanism and the effects on acute inflammation are poorly understood. This study is aimed at exploring the pro-resolving effects of FTA on zymosan-induced acute peritonitis. FTA significantly alleviated peritonitis as evidenced by the decreased number of neutrophils and levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in the peritoneal cavity, without interfering with interleukin-10 (IL-10). FTA showed marked regulation of inflammatory cytokines and chemokine levels in zymosan-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Moreover, FTA could suppress the activation of NF-κB. In conclusion, FTA alleviated zymosan-induced acute peritonitis through inhibition of NF-κB activation.

Phytochemistry, pharmacology, quality control and future research of Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Forsythiae Fructus (called Lianqiao in Chinese), the fruit of Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl, is utilized as a common traditional medicine in China, Japan and Korea. It is traditionally used to treat pyrexia, inflammation, gonorrhea, carbuncle and erysipelas. Depending on the different harvest time, Forsythiae Fructus can be classified into two forms, namely Qingqiao and Laoqiao. The greenish fruits that start to ripen are collected as Qingqiao, while the yellow fruits that are fully ripe are collected as Laoqiao. Both are applied to medical use. This review aims to provide a systematic summary of F. suspensa (Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl) and to reveal the correlation between the traditional uses and pharmacological activities so as to offer inspiration for future research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All corresponding information about F. suspensa was searched by Scifinder and obtained from scientific databases including Springer, Science Direct, Wiley, Pubmed and China Knowledge Resource Integrated (CNKI). Local dissertations and books were searched as well.

RESULTS

According to classical Chinese herbal texts and Chinese Pharmacopoeia, Forsythiae Fructus dominantly displays heat-clearing and detoxifying effects in TCM prescriptions. In modern research, more than 230 compounds were separated and identified from F. suspensa. 211 Of them were isolated from fruits. Lignans and phenylethanoid glycosides are considered as the characteristic and active constituents of this herb, such as forsythiaside, phillyrin, rutin and phillygenin. They exhibited anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-virus, anti-cancer and anti-allergy effects, etc. Currently, there is no report on the toxicity of Forsythiae Fructus, despite slight toxicity of forsythiaside reported in local publications. Compared to Laoqiao, Qingqiao contains higher levels of forsythiaside, forsythoside C, cornoside, rutin, phillyrin, gallic acid and chlorogenic acid and lower levels of rengyol, β-glucose and S-suspensaside methyl ether.

CONCLUSION

Heat-clearing actions of Forsythiae Fructus are based on the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of lignans and phenylethanoid glycosides. Detoxifying effects attribute to the antibacterial, antiviral and anti-cancer activities of Forsythiae Fructus. And traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) characteristics of Forsythiae Fructus (bitter flavor, slightly cold nature and lung meridian) supported its strong anti-inflammatory effects. In addition, the remarkable anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacities of Forsythiae Fructus contribute to its anti-cancer and neuroprotective activities. The higher proportion of lignans and phenylethanoid glycosides in Qingqiao than Laoqiao might explain the better antioxidant ability of Qingqiao and more frequent uses of Qingqiao in TCM prescriptions. For future research, more in vivo experiments and clinical studies are encouraged to further clarify the relation between traditional uses and modern applications. Regarding to Qingqiao and Laoqiao, they remain to be differentiated by all-round quality control methods, and the chemical compositions and clinical effects between them should be compared.

Forsythiae Fructus: A Review on its Phytochemistry, Quality Control, Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics

Forsythiae Fructus, as a traditional Chinese medicine, has been widely used both as a single herb and in compound prescriptions in Asia, mainly due to its heat-clearing and detoxifying effects. Modern pharmacology has proved Forsythiae Fructus possesses various therapeutic effects, both in vitro and in vivo, such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antiviral activities. Up to now, three hundred and twenty-one compounds have been identified and sensitive analytical methods have been established for its quality control. Recently, the pharmacokinetics of Forsythiae Fructus and its bioactive compounds have been reported, providing valuable information for its clinical application. Therefore, this systematic review focused on the newest scientific reports on Forsythiae Fructus and extensively summarizes its phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and standardization procedures, especially the difference between the two applied types—unripe Forsythiae Fructus and ripe Forsythiae Fructus—in the hope of providing a helpful reference and guide for its clinical applications and further studies.