Molecular Understanding of Ion Effect on Polyzwitterion Conformation in an Aqueous Environment

Polyzwitterionic Material Structure and Dielectric Properties

There is a growing need for flexible, high-dielectric-constant materials that move beyond current polar solvent swelling and nanofiller approaches to advance energy storage and actuator applications. Here, we synthesized a series of statistical copolymers consisting of polybutyl acrylate-co-poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl acrylate), which were then converted into polyzwitterions to explore the impact of zwitterions on the material structure and dielectric properties. The DMAEA residues in each copolymer were quaternized using 1,4-butane sultone to yield polyzwitterions through postpolymerization modification. The functionalization of the copolymers with zwitterions increases the static dielectric constant of the materials (i.e., ∼9.3 at 80 °C) compared with the unquaternized materials. The strong dipolar interactions between zwitterions lead to aggregation, resulting in the appearance of either a second glass-transition temperature or the softening of the zwitterion aggregates. Although the zwitterions increased the dielectric constant of the materials, the zwitterion-rich aggregates are posited to restrict zwitterion mobility, precluding the maximum material dielectric constant. The reported findings position polyzwitterions as promising next-generation dielectric materials, potentially broadening applications in flexible electronics and energy-efficient devices.

Effect of Hydration States on the Anti-Icing/Frosting Performance of Zwitterionic Hydrogel-Coated Surfaces

Zwitterionic polymers have gained considerable research attention because of their unique properties and have been widely used in many biomedical and electrochemical applications. Recently, zwitterionic polymers have been investigated for use as anti-icing/frosting surfaces; however, key factors influencing their anti-icing/frosting performance and effectiveness under real operational conditions remain underexplored. Therefore, in this study, we quantitatively analyze the hydration states of zwitterionic hydrogels synthesized from polymerizable zwitterions, such as carboxybetaine methacrylate (CBMA), 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC), and sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA). We focused on the effect of these hydration states on anti-icing/frosting performance in practical environments through a thermodynamic approach. The fractions of freezable water were 14% in pCBMA, 16% in pMPC, and 34% in pSBMA. The activation energy for ice formation within the hydrogel was observed as pCBMA (101.71 kJ mol-1) > pMPC (74.32 kJ mol-1) > pSBMA (59.82 kJ mol-1), suggesting that the zwitterionic hydrogel-coated surface makes ice formation more challenging compared to the uncoated bare substrate (45.79 kJ mol-1). We confirm that a reduction in the freezable water fraction within the hydration state can enhance the anti-icing/frosting performance. Our results demonstrate that zwitterionic hydrogels with strong interaction energies offer significant potential as anti-icing/frosting coatings. This work also reveals the in-depth mechanism of ice propagation and frost growth on hydrogel coatings and proposes insights that can be used to efficiently design future anti-icing/frosting coatings.

Unveiling the Preference for a Carbon Spacer Length of Three in Zwitterionic Sulfobetaines: Insights from DFT Calculations

Zwitterionic sulfobetaines (SBs) have shown excellent performance in biological and chemical applications. The carbon spacer lengths (CSLs) between oppositely charged groups are crucial for the properties of SBs. However, most reported studies naturally selected the SB molecule with a CSL of three, although the underlying reason for this choice remains unclear. In this work, using DFT calculations, we systemically investigated the effect of CSL on the molecular properties of SB molecules, including optimized confirmations, electrostatic potentials, atomic charges, dipole moments, and their self-association behaviors in both the gas phase and water solvent. The solvation free energies of SB molecules with various CSLs were calculated to evaluate the hydrophilicity of SBs. The results of our calculations demonstrated that a CSL of three is a critical length for optimal molecular properties, offering the strongest charge separation and the best hydrophilicity. While all SB molecules can form stable dimers through strong intermolecular electrostatic interactions, the dimers become unstable in water due to electrostatic shielding by water molecules. These findings shed light on the preference for a CSL of three in zwitterionic SBs and provide guidance for the rational design of SB-based materials.

All-atom molecular dynamics simulations of polymer and polyelectrolyte brushes

Densely grafted polymer and polyelectrolyte (PE) brushes, owing to their significant abilities to functionalize surfaces for a plethora of applications in sensing, diagnostics, current rectification, surface wettability modification, drug delivery, and oil recovery, have attracted significant attention over the past several decades. Unfortunately, most of the attention has primarily focused on understanding the properties of the grafted polymer and the PE chains with little attention devoted to studying the behavior of the brush-supported ions (counterions needed to screen the PE chains) and water molecules. Over the past few years, our group has been at the forefront of addressing this gap: we have employed all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations for studying a wide variety of polymer and PE brush systems with specific attention to unraveling the properties and behavior of the brush-supported water molecules and ions. Our findings have revealed some of the most fascinating properties of such brush-supported ions and water molecules, including the most remarkable control of nanofluidic transport afforded by the specific ion and water responses induced by the PE brushes grafted on the inner walls of the nanochannel. This feature article aims to summarize some of our key contributions associated with such atomistic simulations of polymer and PE brushes and brush-supported water molecules and counterions.

Perspectives on Theoretical Models and Molecular Simulations of Polymer Brushes

Polymer brushes have witnessed extensive utilization and progress, driven by their distinct attributes in surface modification, tethered group functionality, and tailored interactions at the nanoscale, enabling them for various scientific and industrial applications of coatings, sensors, switchable/responsive materials, nanolithography, and lab-on-a-chips. Despite the wealth of experimental investigations into polymer brushes, this review primarily focuses on computational studies of antifouling polymer brushes with a strong emphasis on achieving a molecular-level understanding and structurally designing antifouling polymer brushes. Computational exploration covers three realms of thermotical models, molecular simulations, and machine-learning approaches to elucidate the intricate relationship between composition, structure, and properties concerning polymer brushes in the context of nanotribology, surface hydration, and packing conformation. Upon acknowledging the challenges currently faced, we extend our perspectives toward future research directions by delineating potential avenues and unexplored territories. Our overarching objective is to advance our foundational comprehension and practical utilization of polymer brushes for antifouling applications, leveraging the synergy between computational methods and materials design to drive innovation in this crucial field.

Antifouling polymers for nanomedicine and surfaces: recent advances

Antifouling polymers are materials that can resist nonspecific interactions with cells, proteins, and other biomolecules. Typically, they are hydrophilic polymers with polar or charged moieties that are capable of strong nonbonding interactions with water molecules. This propensity to bind water generates a surface hydration layer that reduces nonspecific interactions with other molecules and is paramount to the antifouling behavior. This property is especially useful for nanoscale applications such as nanomedicine and surface modifications at the molecular level. In nanomedicine, antifouling polymers such as poly(ethylene glycol) and its alternatives play a key role in shielding drug molecules and therapeutic proteins/genes from the immune system within nanoassemblies, thereby enabling effective delivery to target tissues. For coatings, antifouling polymers help to prevent adhesion of cells and molecules to surfaces and are thus valued in marine and biomedical device applications. In this Review, we survey recent advances in antifouling polymers in the context of nanomedicine and coatings, while shining the spotlight on the major polymer classes such as PEG, polyzwitterions, poly(oxazoline)s, and other nonionic hydrophilic polymers.

Biomimetic materials based on zwitterionic polymers toward human-friendly medical devices

This review summarizes recent research on the design of polymer material systems based on biomimetic concepts and reports on the medical devices that implement these systems. Biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, and phospholipids, present in living organisms, play important roles in biological activities. These molecules are characterized by heterogenic nature with hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity, and a balance of positive and negative charges, which provide unique reaction fields, interfaces, and functionality. Incorporating these molecules into artificial systems is expected to advance material science considerably. This approach to material design is exceptionally practical for medical devices that are in contact with living organisms. Here, it is focused on zwitterionic polymers with intramolecularly balanced charges and introduce examples of their applications in medical devices. Their unique properties make these polymers potential surface modification materials to enhance the performance and safety of conventional medical devices. This review discusses these devices; moreover, new surface technologies have been summarized for developing human-friendly medical devices using zwitterionic polymers in the cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, orthopedic, and ophthalmology fields.

Interactions between Acrylate/Methacrylate Biomaterials and Organic Foulants Evaluated by Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Simplified Binary Mixtures

Improving hydrophilicity is a key factor for enhancing the biocompatibility of polymer surfaces. Nevertheless, previous studies have reported that poly(2-methoxyethyl acrylate) (PMEA) surfaces demonstrate markedly better biocompatibility than more hydrophilic poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) surfaces. In this work, the origins of the excellent biocompatibility of the PMEA surface are investigated using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of simplified binary mixtures of acrylate/methacrylate trimers and organic solvents, with n-nonane, 1,5-pentanediol, or 1-octanol serving as the probe organic foulants. The interactions between the acrylate/methacrylate trimers and solvent molecules were evaluated by calculating the radial distribution function (RDF), with the resulting curves indicating that the 2-methoxyethyl acrylate (MEA) trimer has a lower affinity for n-nonane molecules than the 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) trimer. This result agrees with the experimental consensus that the biocompatibility of PMEA surfaces is better than that of PHEMA surfaces, supporting the hypothesis that the affinity between an acrylate/methacrylate trimer and a foulant molecule in a simplified binary mixture is a significant factor in determining a surface's antifouling properties. The RDF curves obtained for the other two solvent systems exhibited behavior that further highlighted the advantages of the PMEA surfaces as biocompatible polymers. In addition, the validity of employing the second virial coefficient (B₂) as a predictor of antifouling properties was explored. The order of the B₂ values of different binary mixtures indicated that the MEA trimers have the lowest affinities with n-nonane molecules, which confirms that although PMEA is more hydrophobic than PHEMA, it exhibits better biocompatibility. This analysis demonstrates that the MEA's weaker miscibility with nonpolar foulants contributes to the excellent biocompatibility of PMEA. Thus, B₂ is a promising criterion for assessing the miscibility between acrylate/methacrylate materials and nonpolar organic foulants, which indicates the potential for predicting the antifouling properties of acrylate/methacrylate polymer materials by evaluating the value of B₂.

Macroporous Polyzwitterionic Gels As Versatile Intermediates for the Fixation and Release of Anions

A new stable and functional polyzwitterion poly[1-(carboxymethyl)-4-methacrylamidopyridin-1-ium] was synthesized. The zwitterionic polymer shows its isoelectric point at a pH of 4.2, bidirectional pH responsiveness, and formation of dendritic fractal self-aggregated structures. Using this as a common intermediate, a simple, direct, and scalable single-step protocol was established to introduce various elementary anions like NO₃^-, HSO₄^-, H₂PO₄^-, F^-, Cl^-, Br^-, I^-, CH₃COO^-, and HCOO^- in their salt forms by reaction with the corresponding acids. FESEM studies on cross-linked polymeric hydrogels established the macroporous nature of these materials with their pore size in the range of 10-15 μm. Bidirectional swelling behavior was observed in these hydrogels from gel swelling kinetics and pH studies. Anion release studies in deionized water and buffer solutions showed ∼82 and ∼95% cumulative release for nitrate and phosphate anions, respectively, in 72 h. Our studies suggest that multifunctional polyzwitterionic gels are promising intermediates in the fixation and release of anions like nitrate and phosphate with potential applications in agriculture and healthcare.

Surface modification of polyamide reverse osmosis membranes with small-molecule zwitterions for enhanced fouling resistance: a molecular simulation study

Surface modification with small-molecule zwitterions is experimentally proved to be an effective solution to improve the antifouling performance of polyamide membranes. However, there is no comprehensive understanding of their microscopic mechanism. In order to address this issue, in this work we constructed two atomistic models, PA (a pure polyamide membrane) and QDAP-PA (a polyamide membrane surface-modified with QDAP), where QDAP was a zwitterion that was prepared by 2,6-daaminopyridine quaternized with 3-bromopropionic acid experimentally. Density functional theory was adopted to elucidate the variations in the electrostatic potential before and after modification. Then, equilibrium molecular dynamics (EMD) simulations were conducted to investigate the structure and hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature of the membrane surface in the two models. Finally, we introduced two typical organic foulants, sodium dodecyl sulfonate (SDS) and dodecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (DTAC), to evaluate the antifouling performance of the membranes with the umbrella sampling method. The analyses of the membrane structure and properties show that surface modification with small-molecule zwitterions can densify the membrane surface as well as enlarge the distribution of electrostatic potential on the membrane surface. Water molecules tend to have more interactions with the membrane and more hydrogen bonds near the membrane surface are observed in QDAP-PA. The antifouling test supports that QDAP-PA shows a better antifouling performance, as the surface-modified membrane exhibits a stronger resistance to SDS and DTAC. Even if the foulant is adsorbed to the membrane surface, the denser interface region can prevent a further pollution of the foulant. Also, the free energy needed during the process for QDAP-PA to desorb a foulant is relatively small, indicating that this kind of membrane is easy to clean. The current work might provide a comprehensive understanding of the enhanced fouling resistance of polyamide membranes after surface modification with small-molecule zwitterions.