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Duché G, Sanderson JM. The Chemical Reactivity of Membrane Lipids. Chem Rev 2024; 124:3284-3330. [PMID: 38498932 PMCID: PMC10979411 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
It is well-known that aqueous dispersions of phospholipids spontaneously assemble into bilayer structures. These structures have numerous applications across chemistry and materials science and form the fundamental structural unit of the biological membrane. The particular environment of the lipid bilayer, with a water-poor low dielectric core surrounded by a more polar and better hydrated interfacial region, gives the membrane particular biophysical and physicochemical properties and presents a unique environment for chemical reactions to occur. Many different types of molecule spanning a range of sizes, from dissolved gases through small organics to proteins, are able to interact with membranes and promote chemical changes to lipids that subsequently affect the physicochemical properties of the bilayer. This Review describes the chemical reactivity exhibited by lipids in their membrane form, with an emphasis on conditions where the lipids are well hydrated in the form of bilayers. Key topics include the following: lytic reactions of glyceryl esters, including hydrolysis, aminolysis, and transesterification; oxidation reactions of alkenes in unsaturated fatty acids and sterols, including autoxidation and oxidation by singlet oxygen; reactivity of headgroups, particularly with reactive carbonyl species; and E/Z isomerization of alkenes. The consequences of reactivity for biological activity and biophysical properties are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genevieve Duché
- Génie
Enzimatique et Cellulaire, Université
Technologique de Compiègne, Compiègne 60200, France
| | - John M Sanderson
- Chemistry
Department, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
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2
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Akkerman V, Scheidt HA, Reinholdt P, Bashawat M, Szomek M, Lehmann M, Wessig P, Covey DF, Kongsted J, Müller P, Wüstner D. Natamycin interferes with ergosterol-dependent lipid phases in model membranes. BBA ADVANCES 2023; 4:100102. [PMID: 37691996 PMCID: PMC10482743 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadva.2023.100102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Natamycin is an antifungal polyene macrolide that is used as a food preservative but also to treat fungal keratitis and other yeast infections. In contrast to other polyene antimycotics, natamycin does not form ion pores in the plasma membrane, but its mode of action is poorly understood. Using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of deuterated sterols, we find that natamycin slows the mobility of ergosterol and cholesterol in liquid-ordered (Lo) membranes to a similar extent. This is supported by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, which additionally reveal a strong impact of natamycin dimers on sterol dynamics and water permeability. Interference with sterol-dependent lipid packing is also reflected in a natamycin-mediated increase in membrane accessibility for dithionite, particularly in bilayers containing ergosterol. NMR experiments with deuterated sphingomyelin (SM) in sterol-containing membranes reveal that natamycin reduces phase separation and increases lipid exchange in bilayers with ergosterol. In ternary lipid mixtures containing monounsaturated phosphatidylcholine, saturated SM, and either ergosterol or cholesterol, natamycin interferes with phase separation into Lo and liquid-disordered (Ld) domains, as shown by NMR spectroscopy. Employing the intrinsic fluorescence of natamycin in ultraviolet-sensitive microscopy, we can visualize the binding of natamycin to giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) and find that it has the highest affinity for the Lo phase in GUVs containing ergosterol. Our results suggest that natamycin specifically interacts with the sterol-induced ordered phase, in which it disrupts lipid packing and increases solvent accessibility. This property is particularly pronounced in ergosterol containing membranes, which could underlie the selective antifungal activity of natamycin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vibeke Akkerman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - Holger A. Scheidt
- Institute for Medical Physics and Biophysics, Leipzig University, Härtelstr. 16-18, D-04107, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Peter Reinholdt
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - Mohammad Bashawat
- Department of Biology, Humboldt University Berlin, Invalidenstr. 43, D-10115, Berlin, Germany
| | - Maria Szomek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - Max Lehmann
- Institute for Chemistry, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Pablo Wessig
- Institute for Chemistry, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Douglas F. Covey
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
- Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jacob Kongsted
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - Peter Müller
- Department of Biology, Humboldt University Berlin, Invalidenstr. 43, D-10115, Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniel Wüstner
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
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3
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Yoda T. Charged Lipids Influence Phase Separation in Cell-Sized Liposomes Containing Cholesterol or Ergosterol. MEMBRANES 2022; 12:membranes12111121. [PMID: 36363676 PMCID: PMC9697951 DOI: 10.3390/membranes12111121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Positively charged ion species and charged lipids play specific roles in biochemical processes, especially those involving cell membranes. The cell membrane and phase separation domains are attractive research targets to study signal transduction. The phase separation structure and functions of cell-sized liposomes containing charged lipids and cholesterol have been investigated earlier, and the domain structure has also been studied in a membrane model, containing the yeast sterol ergosterol. The present study investigates phase-separated domain structure alterations in membranes containing charged lipids when cholesterol is substituted with ergosterol. This study finds that ergosterol increases the homogeneity of membranes containing charged lipids. Cholesterol-containing membranes are more sensitive to a charged state, and ergosterol-containing liposomes show lower responses to charged lipids. These findings may improve our understanding of the differences in both yeast and mammalian cells, as well as the interactions of proteins with lipids during signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Yoda
- Hachinohe Industrial Research Institute, Aomori Prefectural Industrial Technology Research Center, 1-4-43 Kita-inter-kogyodanchi, Hachinohe City 039-2245, Aomori, Japan; ; Tel.: +81-178-21-2100
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Iwate University, 3-18-8 Ueda, Morioka City 020-8550, Iwate, Japan
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4
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Mohid SA, Biswas K, Won T, Mallela LS, Gucchait A, Butzke L, Sarkar R, Barkham T, Reif B, Leipold E, Roy S, Misra AK, Lakshminarayanan R, Lee D, Bhunia A. Structural insights into the interaction of antifungal peptides and ergosterol containing fungal membrane. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOMEMBRANES 2022; 1864:183996. [PMID: 35753394 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2022.183996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The treatment of invasive drug-resistant and potentially life-threatening fungal infections is limited to few therapeutic options that are usually associated with severe side effects. The development of new effective antimycotics with a more tolerable side effect profile is therefore of utmost clinical importance. Here, we used a combination of complementary in vitro assays and structural analytical methods to analyze the interaction of the de novo antimicrobial peptide VG16KRKP with the sterol moieties of biological cell membranes. We demonstrate that VG16KRKP disturbs the structural integrity of fungal membranes both invitro and in model membrane system containing ergosterol along with phosphatidylethanolamine lipid and exhibits broad-spectrum antifungal activity. As revealed by systematic structure-function analysis of mutated VG16KRKP analogs, a specific pattern of basic and hydrophobic amino acid side chains in the primary peptide sequence determines the selectivity of VG16KRKP for fungal specific membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sk Abdul Mohid
- Department of Biophysics, Bose Institute, Unified Academic Campus, Salt Lake, EN 80, Sector V, Kolkata 700091, India
| | - Karishma Biswas
- Department of Biophysics, Bose Institute, Unified Academic Campus, Salt Lake, EN 80, Sector V, Kolkata 700091, India
| | - TaeJun Won
- Department of Fine Chemistry, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, Seoul 01811, Republic of Korea
| | - Lakshmi S Mallela
- Prof. Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad 500034, India
| | - Arin Gucchait
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Bose Institute, Unified Academic Campus, Salt Lake, EN 80, Sector V, Kolkata 700091, India
| | - Lena Butzke
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care & Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | | | - Timothy Barkham
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore
| | - Bernd Reif
- Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Enrico Leipold
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care & Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Sanhita Roy
- Prof. Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad 500034, India
| | - Anup K Misra
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Bose Institute, Unified Academic Campus, Salt Lake, EN 80, Sector V, Kolkata 700091, India
| | | | - DongKuk Lee
- Department of Fine Chemistry, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, Seoul 01811, Republic of Korea.
| | - Anirban Bhunia
- Department of Biophysics, Bose Institute, Unified Academic Campus, Salt Lake, EN 80, Sector V, Kolkata 700091, India.
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Yoda T. Phase Separation in Liposomes Determined by Ergosterol and Classified Using Machine Learning. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2022; 28:1-8. [PMID: 36117262 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927622012521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies indicated that ergosterol (Erg) helps form strongly ordered lipid domains in membranes that depend on their chemical characters. However, direct evidence of concentration-dependent interaction of Erg with lipid membranes has not been reported. We studied the Erg concentration-dependent changes in the phase behaviors of membranes using cell-sized liposomes containing 1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC)/1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC). We observed the concentration range of phase separation in ternary membranes was significantly wider when Erg rather than cholesterol (Chol) was used as the sterol component. We used machine learning for the first time to analyze microscopic images of cell-sized liposomes and identify phase-separated structures. The automated method was successful in identifying homogeneous membranes but performance remained data-limited for the identification of phase separation domains characterized by more complex features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Yoda
- Aomori Prefectural Industrial Technology Research Center, Hachinohe Industrial Research Institute, Hachinohe City, Aomori 039-2245, Japan
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Iwate University, Morioka City, Iwate 020-8550, Japan
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Alavizargar A, Keller F, Wedlich-Söldner R, Heuer A. Effect of Cholesterol Versus Ergosterol on DPPC Bilayer Properties: Insights from Atomistic Simulations. J Phys Chem B 2021; 125:7679-7690. [PMID: 34255501 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.1c03528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Sterols have been ascribed a major role in the organization of biological membranes, in particular for the formation of liquid ordered domains in complex lipid mixtures. Here, we employed molecular dynamics simulations to compare the effects of cholesterol and ergosterol as the major sterol of mammalian and fungal cells, respectively, on binary mixtures with 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) as a proxy for saturated lipids. In agreement with previous work, we observe that the addition of sterol molecules modifies the order of DPPC both in the gel phase and in the liquid phase. When disentangling the overall tilt angle and the structure of the tail imposed by trans/gauche configurations of torsion angles in the tail, respectively, a more detailed picture of the impact of sterols can be formulated, revealing, for example, an approximate temperature-concentration superposition ranging from the liquid to the gel phase. Furthermore, a new quantitative measure to identify the presence of collective sterol effects is discussed. Moreover, when comparing both types of sterols, addition of cholesterol has a noticeably stronger impact on phospholipid properties than that of ergosterol. The observed differences can be attributed to higher planarity of the cholesterol ring system. This planarity combined with an inherent asymmetry in its molecular interactions leads to better alignment and hence stronger interaction with saturated acyl chains. Our results suggest that the high order demonstrated for ergosterol in fungal plasma membranes must therefore be generated via additional mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azadeh Alavizargar
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Muenster, Corrensstr. 28/30, 48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - Fabian Keller
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Muenster, Corrensstr. 28/30, 48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - Roland Wedlich-Söldner
- Institute of Cell Dynamics and Imaging, Centre for Molecular Biology of Inflammation and Cells-in-Motion Cluster of Excellence, University of Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - Andreas Heuer
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Muenster, Corrensstr. 28/30, 48149 Muenster, Germany
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Izza N, Suga K, Okamoto Y, Watanabe N, Bui TT, Wibisono Y, Fadila CR, Umakoshi H. Systematic Characterization of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers from Cetyl Palmitate/Caprylic Triglyceride/Tween 80 Mixtures in an Aqueous Environment. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:4284-4293. [PMID: 33797256 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c00270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are gaining attention as the new generation of lipid vehicles. These carriers consist of saturated lipids with small drops of liquid oil dispersed into the inner lipid matrix and are stabilized by a surfactant. Conventionally, NLC-based drug delivery systems have been widely studied, and many researchers are looking into the composition of NLC properties to improve the performance of NLCs. The membrane fluidity and polarity of self-assembling lipids are also essential properties that must be affected by membrane compositions; however, such fundamental characteristics have not been studied yet. In this study, NLCs were prepared from cetyl palmitate (CP), caprylic triglyceride (CaTG), and Tween 80 (T80). Structural properties, such as particle size and ζ-potential of the CP/CaTG/T80 ternary mixtures, were investigated. Then, the systematic characterization of self-assembly properties using fluorescence-based analysis was applied for the first time to the NLC system. As a final step, the ternary diagram was developed based on the self-assembly properties to summarize the possible structures formed at different compositions. The results showed four states: micelle-like, oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion-like, solid lipid nanoparticle-like, and intermediate (solid-liquid coexistence). For the purpose of making the lipid matrix more liquified, the heterogeneous state and the disordered state of the O/W emulsion-like structure might fulfill the criteria of NLCs. Finally, the ternary diagram provides new information about the assembly state of NLC constituents that could become an important reference for developing high-performance NLCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ni'matul Izza
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyamacho, Toyonaka 560-8531, Osaka, Japan
- Bioprocess Engineering Study Program, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Universitas Brawijaya, Jalan Veteran, Malang 65145 East Java, Indonesia
| | - Keishi Suga
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-07, Aoba, Aramaki-aza, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Okamoto
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyamacho, Toyonaka 560-8531, Osaka, Japan
| | - Nozomi Watanabe
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyamacho, Toyonaka 560-8531, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tham Thi Bui
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyamacho, Toyonaka 560-8531, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yusuf Wibisono
- Bioprocess Engineering Study Program, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Universitas Brawijaya, Jalan Veteran, Malang 65145 East Java, Indonesia
| | - Cut Rifda Fadila
- Bioprocess Engineering Study Program, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Universitas Brawijaya, Jalan Veteran, Malang 65145 East Java, Indonesia
| | - Hiroshi Umakoshi
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyamacho, Toyonaka 560-8531, Osaka, Japan
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8
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Sofferman DL, Konar A, Spears KG, Sension RJ. Ultrafast excited state dynamics of provitamin D 3 and analogs in solution and in lipid bilayers. J Chem Phys 2021; 154:094309. [PMID: 33685160 DOI: 10.1063/5.0041375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The photochemical ring-opening reaction of 7-dehydrocholesterol (DHC, provitamin D3) is responsible for the light-initiated formation of vitamin D3 in mammalian skin membranes. Visible transient absorption spectroscopy was used to explore the excited state dynamics of DHC and two analogs: ergosterol (provitamin D2) and DHC acetate free in solution and confined to lipid bilayers chosen to model the biological cell membrane. In solution, the excited state dynamics of the three compounds are nearly identical. However, when confined to lipid bilayers, the heterogeneity of the lipid membrane and packing forces imposed on the molecule by the lipid alter the excited state dynamics of these compounds. When confined to lipid bilayers in liposomes formed using DPPC, two solvation environments are identified. The excited state dynamics for DHC and analogs in fluid-like regions of the liposome membrane undergo internal conversion and ring-opening on 1 ps-2 ps time scales, similar to those observed in isotropic solution. In contrast, the excited state lifetime of a subpopulation in regions of lower fluidity is 7 ps-12 ps. The long decay component is unique to these liposomes and results from the structural properties of the lipid bilayer. Additional measurements in liposomes prepared with lipids having slightly longer or shorter alkane tails support this conclusion. In the lipid environments studied, the longest lifetimes are observed for DHC. The unsaturated sterol tail of ergosterol and the acetate group of DHC acetate disrupt the packing around the molecule and permit faster internal conversion and relaxation back to the ground state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle L Sofferman
- Program in Applied Physics, University of Michigan, 450 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1040, USA
| | - Arkaprabha Konar
- Department of Physics, University of Michigan, 450 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1040, USA
| | - Kenneth G Spears
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, USA
| | - Roseanne J Sension
- Department of Physics, University of Michigan, 450 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1040, USA
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Zhao J, Su J, Qin L, Zhang X, Mao S. Exploring the influence of inhaled liposome membrane fluidity on its interaction with pulmonary physiological barriers. Biomater Sci 2020; 8:6786-6797. [DOI: 10.1039/d0bm01529f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Liposome membrane fluidity can influence its interaction with pulmonary physiological barriers, including mucus permeation, macrophage uptake and trachea permeation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhao
- School of Pharmacy
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University
- Shenyang 110016
- China
| | - Jian Su
- School of Pharmacy
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University
- Shenyang 110016
- China
| | - Lu Qin
- School of Pharmacy
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University
- Shenyang 110016
- China
| | - Xin Zhang
- School of Pharmacy
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University
- Shenyang 110016
- China
| | - Shirui Mao
- School of Pharmacy
- Shenyang Pharmaceutical University
- Shenyang 110016
- China
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Ileri Ercan N. Understanding Interactions of Curcumin with Lipid Bilayers: A Coarse-Grained Molecular Dynamics Study. J Chem Inf Model 2019; 59:4413-4426. [PMID: 31545601 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.9b00650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The interactions of curcumin with various lipid bilayers (POPC, DOPC, oxidized POPC, and oxidized DOPC) and model biomembranes (symmetric bacteria and yeast plasma membranes, as well as asymmetric mammalian plasma membrane) are investigated. A nonlinear thinning effect of curcumin with respect to its concentration is demonstrated in PC membranes and in the yeast. Curcumin induces asymmetry to the symmetric yeast membranes but reduces the degree of asymmetry of the mammalian plasma membranes when the molecule is placed facing the outer leaflets. The molecule is found to diffuse through oxidized PC bilayers, POPC bilayers at a curcumin to lipid ratio C/L = 1/5, yeast membranes at C/L = 1/100, and the mammalian plasma membranes at C/L = 1/5 and when the molecule placed facing the outer leaflets. The results of this work demonstrate that the lipid type, the lipid distribution, and curcumin amount play a critical role in defining the interactions of curcumin with the lipids and their transport behavior through the bilayers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazar Ileri Ercan
- Chemical Engineering Department , Bogazici University , Bebek 34342 , Istanbul , Turkey
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