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Zhu X, Shi Z, Mao Y, Lächelt U, Huang R. Cell Membrane Perforation: Patterns, Mechanisms and Functions. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2310605. [PMID: 38344881 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202310605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Cell membrane is crucial for the cellular activities, and any disruption to it may affect the cells. It is demonstrated that cell membrane perforation is associated with some biological processes like programmed cell death (PCD) and infection of pathogens. Specific developments make it a promising technique to perforate the cell membrane controllably and precisely. The pores on the cell membrane provide direct pathways for the entry and exit of substances, and can also cause cell death, which means reasonable utilization of cell membrane perforation is able to assist intracellular delivery, eliminate diseased or cancerous cells, and bring about other benefits. This review classifies the patterns of cell membrane perforation based on the mechanisms into 1) physical patterns, 2) biological patterns, and 3) chemical patterns, introduces the characterization methods and then summarizes the functions according to the characteristics of reversible and irreversible pores, with the aim of providing a comprehensive summary of the knowledge related to cell membrane perforation and enlightening broad applications in biomedical science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinran Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery (Ministry of Education), Huashan Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Zhifeng Shi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Ying Mao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Ulrich Lächelt
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, 1090, Austria
| | - Rongqin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery (Ministry of Education), Huashan Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
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Li Y, Lv X, Liu J, Du Y. Total synthesis and cytotoxicity evaluation of the spirostanol saponin gitonin. Org Biomol Chem 2024; 22:2081-2090. [PMID: 38363172 DOI: 10.1039/d3ob02101g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The spirostanol saponin gitonin was efficiently synthesized in 12 steps (longest linear sequence) in 18.5% overall yield from the commercially available isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) and tigogenin. A cascade two-step glycosylation and Schmidt's inverse procedure significantly facilitated the synthesis of gitonin and its derivatives. The cytotoxic activities of gitonin and its structural analogues were evaluated against A549, HepG2, and MCF-7, and most of them exhibited moderate to excellent inhibitory activity. Our study demonstrates that the removal of the β-D-galactopyranosyl residue (attached at C-2 of the glucose unit) from gitonin would not decrease the inhibition activities; however, further cleavage of sugar units could seriously reduce the activities. A bioassay on these cancer cell lines also suggested that the presence of 2α-hydroxy on the aglycone weakened the cytotoxicity of the designed saponin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Eco-toxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xun Lv
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Eco-toxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Binzhou Institute of Technology, Weiqiao-UCAS Science and Technology Park, Binzhou 256606, Shandong Province, China
| | - Yuguo Du
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Eco-toxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Binzhou Institute of Technology, Weiqiao-UCAS Science and Technology Park, Binzhou 256606, Shandong Province, China
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Ondevilla JC, Hanashima S, Mukogawa A, Miyazato DG, Umegawa Y, Murata M. Effect of the number of sugar units on the interaction between diosgenyl saponin and membrane lipids. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOMEMBRANES 2023; 1865:184145. [PMID: 36914020 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2023.184145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023]
Abstract
Saponin is the main bioactive component of the Dioscorea species, which are traditionally used for treating chronic diseases. An understanding of the interaction process of bioactive saponins with biomembranes provides insights into their development as therapeutic agents. The biological effects of saponins have been thought to be associated with membrane cholesterol (Chol). To shed light on the exact mechanisms of their interactions, we investigated the effects of diosgenyl saponins trillin (TRL) and dioscin (DSN) on the dynamic behavior of lipids and membrane properties in palmitoyloleolylphosphatidylcholine (POPC) bilayers using solid-state NMR and fluorescence spectroscopy. The membrane effects of diosgenin, a sapogenin of TRL and DSN, are similar to those of Chol, suggesting that diosgenin plays a major role in membrane binding and POPC chain ordering. The amphiphilicity of TRL and DSN enabled them to interact with POPC bilayers, regardless of Chol. In the presence of Chol, the sugar residues more prominently influenced the membrane-disrupting effects of saponins. The activity of DSN, which bears three sugar units, led to perturbation and further disruption of the membrane in the presence of Chol. However, TRL, which bears one sugar residue, increased the ordering of POPC chains while maintaining the integrity of the bilayer. This effect on the phospholipid bilayers is similar to that of cholesteryl glucoside. The influence of the number of sugars in saponin is discussed in more detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Candice Ondevilla
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan; Department of Chemistry, De La Salle University, 2401 Taft Avenue, Manila 0922, Philippines
| | - Shinya Hanashima
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan; Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-cho Minami, Tottori 680-8552, Japan.
| | - Akane Mukogawa
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Darcy Garza Miyazato
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Yuichi Umegawa
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan; Forefront Research Centre for Fundamental Science, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Michio Murata
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan; Forefront Research Centre for Fundamental Science, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan.
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Garza DL, Hanashima S, Umegawa Y, Murata M, Kinoshita M, Matsumori N, Greimel P. Behavior of Triterpenoid Saponin Ginsenoside Rh2 in Ordered and Disordered Phases in Model Membranes Consisting of Sphingomyelin, Phosphatidylcholine, and Cholesterol. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2022; 38:10478-10491. [PMID: 35984899 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.2c01261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2) is a saponin of medicinal ginseng, and it has attracted much attention for its pharmacological activities. In this study, we investigated the interaction of Rh2 with biological membranes using model membranes. We examined the effects of various lipids on the membrane-disrupting activity of Rh2 and found that cholesterol and sphingomyelin (SM) had no significant effect. Furthermore, the effects of Rh2 on acyl chain packing (DPH anisotropy) and water molecule permeability (GP340 values) did not differ significantly between bilayers containing SM and saturated phosphatidylcholine. These results suggest that the formation of the liquid-ordered (Lo) phase affects the behavior of Rh2 in the membrane rather than a specific interaction of Rh2 with a particular lipid. We investigated the effects of Rh2 on the Lo and liquid-disordered (Ld) phases using surface tension measurements and fluorescence experiments. In the surface tension-area isotherms, we compared the monolayers of the Ld and Lo lipid compositions and found that Rh2 is abundantly bound to both monolayers, with the amount being greater in the Ld phase than in the Lo phase. In addition, the hydration state of the bilayers, mainly consisting of the Lo or Ld phase, showed that Rh2 tends to bind to the surface of the bilayer in both phases. At higher concentrations, Rh2 tends to bind more abundantly to the relatively shallow interior of the Ld phase than the Lo phase. The phase-dependent membrane behavior of Rh2 is probably due to the phase-selective affinity and binding mode of Rh2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darcy Lacanilao Garza
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Shinya Hanashima
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Yuichi Umegawa
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Michio Murata
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
- Forefront Research Center, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Masanao Kinoshita
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Nobuaki Matsumori
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Peter Greimel
- Laboratory for Cell Function Dynamics, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198 Japan
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Mazzio E, Almalki A, Darling-Reed SF, Soliman KFA. Effects of Wild Yam Root ( Dioscorea villosa) Extract on the Gene Expression Profile of Triple-negative Breast Cancer Cells. Cancer Genomics Proteomics 2021; 18:735-755. [PMID: 34697066 DOI: 10.21873/cgp.20294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIM Wild yam extract [Dioscorea villosa, (WYE)] is consistently lethal at low IC50s across diverse cancer-lines in vitro. Unlike traditional anti-cancer botanicals, WYE contains detergent saponins which reduce oil-water interfacial tensions causing disintegration of lipid membranes and causing cell lysis, creating an interfering variable. Here, we evaluate WYE at sub-lethal concentrations in MDA-MB-231 triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS Quantification of saponins, membrane potential, lytic death and sub-lethal WYE changes in whole transcriptomic (WT) mRNA, miRNAs and biological parameters were evaluated. RESULTS WYE caused 346 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) out of 48,226 transcripts tested; where up-regulated DEGS reflect immune stimulation, TNF signaling, COX2, cytokine release and cholesterol/steroid biosynthesis. Down-regulated DEGs reflect losses in cell division cycle (CDC), cyclins (CCN), cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), centromere proteins (CENP), kinesin family members (KIFs) and polo-like kinases (PLKs), which were in alignment with biological studies. CONCLUSION Sub-lethal concentrations of WYE appear to evoke pro-inflammatory, steroid biosynthetic and cytostatic effects in TNBC cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mazzio
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, U.S.A
| | - Abdulaziz Almalki
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, U.S.A
| | - Selina F Darling-Reed
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, U.S.A.
| | - Karam F A Soliman
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, U.S.A.
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Elekofehinti OO, Iwaloye O, Olawale F, Ariyo EO. Saponins in Cancer Treatment: Current Progress and Future Prospects. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2021; 28:250-272. [PMID: 35366261 PMCID: PMC8830467 DOI: 10.3390/pathophysiology28020017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Saponins are steroidal or triterpenoid glycoside that is distinguished by the soap-forming nature. Different saponins have been characterized and purified and are gaining attention in cancer chemotherapy. Saponins possess high structural diversity, which is linked to the anticancer activities. Several studies have reported the role of saponins in cancer and the mechanism of actions, including cell-cycle arrest, antioxidant activity, cellular invasion inhibition, induction of apoptosis and autophagy. Despite the extensive research and significant anticancer effects of saponins, there are currently no known FDA-approved saponin-based anticancer drugs. This can be attributed to a number of limitations, including toxicities and drug-likeness properties. Recent studies have explored options such as combination therapy and drug delivery systems to ensure increased efficacy and decreased toxicity in saponin. This review discusses the current knowledge on different saponins, their anticancer activity and mechanisms of action, as well as promising research within the last two decades and recommendations for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olusola Olalekan Elekofehinti
- Bioinformatics and Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology Akure, PMB 704, Nigeria; (O.I.); (E.O.A.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Opeyemi Iwaloye
- Bioinformatics and Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology Akure, PMB 704, Nigeria; (O.I.); (E.O.A.)
| | - Femi Olawale
- Nanogene and Drug Delivery Group, Department of Biochemistry, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa;
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos 101017, Nigeria
| | - Esther Opeyemi Ariyo
- Bioinformatics and Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology Akure, PMB 704, Nigeria; (O.I.); (E.O.A.)
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Cytotoxicity of Quillaja saponaria Saponins towards Lung Cells Is Higher for Cholesterol-Rich Cells. BIOPHYSICA 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/biophysica1020010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to compare cytotoxicity of two Quillaja saponaria bark saponin (QBS) mixtures against two lung cell lines: normal MRC-5 fibroblast cell line and tumor A-549 epithelial cells of lungs’ alveoli. The study, performed both at a macro-scale and in a dedicated microfluidic device, showed that QBS was more toxic to the cell line more abundant in cholesterol (MRC-5). The QBS mixture with higher saponin fraction was found to be more cytotoxic towards both cell lines. The results may help to better understand the cytotoxicity of saponin-rich herbal medicines towards normal and tumor cells depending on their cholesterol content.
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Ondevilla JC, Hanashima S, Mukogawa A, Umegawa Y, Murata M. Diosgenin-induced physicochemical effects on phospholipid bilayers in comparison with cholesterol. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2021; 36:127816. [PMID: 33516912 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2021.127816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Diosgenin (DGN), which is a sterol occurring in plants of the Dioscorea family, has attracted increasing attention for its various pharmacological activities. DGN has a structural similarity to cholesterol (Cho). In this study we investigated the effects of the common tetracyclic cores and the different side chains on the physicochemical properties of lipid bilayer membranes. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that DGN and Cho reduce the phase transition enthalpy to a similar extent. In 2H NMR, deuterated-DGN/Cho and POPC showed similar ordering in POPC bilayers, which revealed that DGN is oriented parallel to the membrane normal like Cho. It was suggested that the affinity of DGN-Cho in membrane is stronger than that of DGN-DGN or Cho-Cho interaction. 31P NMR of POPC in bilayers revealed that, unlike Cho, DGN altered the interactions of POPC headgroups at 30 mol%. These results suggest that DGN below 30 mol% has similar effects with Cho on basic biomembrane properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Candice Ondevilla
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Shinya Hanashima
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan.
| | - Akane Mukogawa
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan; ERATO, Lipid Active Structure Project, Japan Science and Technology Agency, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Yuichi Umegawa
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Michio Murata
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan; ERATO, Lipid Active Structure Project, Japan Science and Technology Agency, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan.
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Hanashima S, Fukuda N, Malabed R, Murata M, Kinoshita M, Greimel P, Hirabayashi Y. β-Glucosylation of cholesterol reduces sterol-sphingomyelin interactions. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1863:183496. [PMID: 33130096 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cholesteryl-β-D-glucoside (ChoGlc) is a mammalian glycolipid that is expressed in brain tissue. The effects of glucosylation on the ordering and lipid interactions of cholesterol (Cho) were examined in membranes composed of N-stearoyl sphingomyelin (SSM), which is abundant in the brain, and to investigate the possible molecular mechanism involved in these interactions. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed that ChoGlc was miscible with SSM in a similar extent of Cho. Solid-state 2H NMR of deuterated SSM and fluorescent anisotropy using 1,6-diphenylhexatriene demonstrated that the glucosylation of Cho significantly reduced the effect of the sterol tetracyclic core on the ordering of SSM chains. The orientation of the sterol core was further examined by solid-state NMR analysis of deuterated and fluorinated ChoGlc analogues. ChoGlc had a smaller tilt angle between the long molecular axis (C3-C17) and the membrane normal than Cho in SSM bilayers, and the fluctuations in the tilt angle were largely unaffected by temperature-dependent mobility changes of SSM acyl chains. This orientation of the sterol core of ChoGlc leads to reduce sterol-SSM interactions. The MD simulation results suggested that the Glc moiety perturbs the SSM-sterol interactions, which reduces the umbrella effect of the phosphocholine headgroup because the hydrophilic glucose moiety resides at the same depth as an SSM amide group. These differences between ChoGlc and Cho also weaken the SSM-ChoGlc interactions. Thus, the distribution and localization of Cho and ChoGlc possibly control the stability of sphingomyelin-based domains that transiently occur at specific locations in biological membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinya Hanashima
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan.
| | - Nanami Fukuda
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Raymond Malabed
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Michio Murata
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan.
| | - Msanao Kinoshita
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Peter Greimel
- Laboratory for Cell Function Dynamics, Brain Science Institute, RIKEN Institute, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Yoshio Hirabayashi
- RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, RIKEN, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan; Institute for Environmental and Gender-Specific Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Urayasu, Chiba 279-0021, Japan
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Juang YP, Liang PH. Biological and Pharmacological Effects of Synthetic Saponins. Molecules 2020; 25:E4974. [PMID: 33121124 PMCID: PMC7663351 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25214974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Saponins are amphiphilic molecules consisting of carbohydrate and either triterpenoid or steroid aglycone moieties and are noted for their multiple biological activities-Fungicidal, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects have all been observed. Saponins from natural sources have long been used in herbal and traditional medicines; however, the isolation of complexed saponins from nature is difficult and laborious, due to the scarce amount and structure heterogeneity. Chemical synthesis is considered a powerful tool to expand the structural diversity of saponin, leading to the discovery of promising compounds. This review focuses on recent developments in the structure optimization and biological evaluation of synthetic triterpenoid and steroid saponin derivatives. By summarizing the structure-activity relationship (SAR) results, we hope to provide the direction for future development of saponin-based bioactive compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pi-Hui Liang
- School of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 100, Taiwan;
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