Unique Self-Reinforcing and Rapid Self-Healing Polyampholyte Hydrogels with a pH-Induced Shape Memory Effect

Smart hydrogel: A new platform for cancer therapy

Cancer is a significant contributor to mortality worldwide, posing a significant threat to human life and health. The unique bioactivity, ability to precisely control drug release, and minimally invasive properties of hydrogels are indispensable attributes that facilitate optimal performance in cancer therapy. However, conventional hydrogels lack the ability to dynamically respond to changes in the surrounding environment, withstand drastic changes in the microenvironment, and trigger drug release on demand. Therefore, this review focuses on smart-responsive hydrogels that are capable of adapting and responding to external stimuli. We comprehensively summarize the raw materials, preparation, and cross-linking mechanisms of smart hydrogels derived from natural and synthetic materials, elucidate the response principles of various smart-responsive hydrogels according to different stimulation sources. Further, we systematically illustrate the important role played by hydrogels in modern cancer therapies within the context of therapeutic principles. Meanwhile, the smart hydrogel that uses machine learning to design precise drug delivery has shown great prospects in cancer therapy. Finally, we present the outlook on future developments and make suggestions for future related work. It is anticipated that this review will promote the practical application of smart hydrogels in cancer therapy and contribute to the advancement of medical treatment.

Polymer Entanglement-Induced Hydrogel Adhesion

Hydrogels are widely used in the field of adhesive materials. However, hydrogel adhesion has previously required the covalent graft of supramolecular groups on polymeric chains. In contrast to that, here, a hydrogel adhesion induced by covalent polymer entanglement between two hydrogel networks was reported. Hydrogels G1 and G2 contain the monomers M1, with diazonium groups, and M2, with sulfonate groups, respectively. When the two hydrogels come into contact, the monomers diffuse into each other's networks and assemble into supramolecular polymers (SPs) based on electrostatic interactions, threading the two hydrogel networks. Subsequently, SPs convert into covalent polymers (CPs) under UV light stimulation due to the reaction between the diazonium groups and sulfonate groups, leading to the entanglement of the two hydrogel networks and the production of an adhesive effect. This finding provides a novel strategy for hydrogel adhesion.

Thermal responsive sodium alginate/polyacrylamide/poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) ionic hydrogel composite via seeding calcium carbonate microparticles for the engineering of ultrasensitive wearable sensors

The design of polyelectrolyte hydrogel with unique tensile and adhesive properties which can be applied across disciplines has gradually become a popular trend. However, the phenomenon of global warming and the emergence of extreme weather, it still faces some urgent problems that should be solved, such as the optimal utilization of polyelectrolyte hydrogel across a wide range of temperatures. Herein, a wide temperature sensitivity and conductivity hydrogel based on sodium alginate, acrylamide and N-isopropylacrylamide was constructed, which exhibited excellent adhesion and temperature conductivity. It is worth noting that after the inclusion of CaCO3 and NaCl in the hydrogel, the hydrogel showed excellent tensile properties (fracture strain >2000 %). Within a wide temperature range (-15-50 °C), it exhibits exceptional electrical conductivity (2.75 S ∗ m-1) and sensitivity (GF = 8.76 under high strain). This innovative intelligent polyelectrolyte hydrogel provides suitable strategy for flexible sensors, smart wearable devices and medical monitoring equipment.

Extreme condition-tolerant stretchable flexible supercapacitor and triboelectric nanogenerator based on carrageenan-enhanced gel for energy storage, energy collection and self-powered sensing

As flexible electronics devices for energy storage, mechanical energy collection and self-powered sensing, stretchable flexible supercapacitor and triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) have attracted extensive attention. However, it is difficult to satisfy the requirements of high safety and resistance to extreme conditions. Dual roles of mechanical and electrical enhancement of inorganic salt are put forward, and a carrageenan (CG) enhanced poly (N-hydroxyethyl acrylamide)/CG/lithium chloride/glycerol (PCLG) conductive gel is prepared by designing hydrogen bonding self-crosslinking and chain entanglement. A high concentration and rapid deposition strategy is proposed to prepare a PCLG gel-based stretchable flexible all-in-one supercapacitor for energy storage, and a single electrode PCLG gel-based TENG is designed for mechanical energy collection, self-powered strain and tactile sensing. The supercapacitor has high capacitance, excellent cycling stability. The TENG possesses efficient energy harvesting with high and stable output voltage and power density, and sensitive and stable self-powered strain and tactile sensing without external power supply. Even under extreme conditions such as low temperatures, self-healing after damage, prolonged placement, deformation, post-deformation, multiple continuous work, pinprick and burning, the supercapacitor and TENG still have excellent properties. Therefore, we provide novel ideas to design flexible supercapacitor and TENG used under extreme conditions for future wearable electronics.

Shape Memory Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications

The ability of shape memory polymers to change shape upon external stimulation makes them exceedingly useful in various areas, from biomedical engineering to soft robotics. Especially, shape memory hydrogels (SMHs) are well-suited for biomedical applications due to their inherent biocompatibility, excellent shape morphing performance, tunable physiochemical properties, and responsiveness to a wide range of stimuli (e.g., thermal, chemical, electrical, light). This review provides an overview of the unique features of smart SMHs from their fundamental working mechanisms to types of SMHs classified on the basis of applied stimuli and highlights notable clinical applications. Moreover, the potential of SMHs for surgical, biomedical, and tissue engineering applications is discussed. Finally, this review summarizes the current challenges in synthesizing and fabricating reconfigurable hydrogel-based interfaces and outlines future directions for their potential in personalized medicine and clinical applications.

Multistimuli-Responsive Shape-Memory Composites with a Water-Assisted Self-Healing Function Based on Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Poly(vinyl alcohol)/MXene

Recent advancements in artificial intelligence have propelled the development of shape-memory polymers (SMPs) with sophisticated, environment-sensitive capabilities. Despite the progress, most of the existing SMPs are limited to responding to a single stimulus and show poor functionality, which has severely hindered their future applications. Herein, we report a high-performance multistimuli-responsive shape-memory and self-healing composite film fabricated by embedding MXene nanosheets into a conventional shape-memory sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) matrix. The incorporation of photothermal MXene nanosheets not only enhances the composite films' mechanical strength but also provides efficient solar-thermal conversion and robust light-actuated shape-memory properties. The resultant composite films exhibit an exceptional shape-memory response to various stimuli including heat, light, and water. Meanwhile, the interfacial interactions can be modulated by adjusting the MXene content, thereby enabling precise manipulation of the shape-memory performance. Moreover, thanks to the intrinsic hydrophilicity of the components and the unique physically cross-linked network, the composite films also demonstrate an effective water-assisted self-healing capability with an impressive healing efficiency of 85.7%. This work offers insights into the development of multifunctional, multistimuli-responsive shape-memory composites, opening up new possibilities for future applications in smart technologies.

A Shape Memory Hydrogel with Excellent Mechanical Properties, Water Retention Capacity, and Tunable Fluorescence for Dual Encryption

Information encryption platforms with reliable encryption performance, excellent mechanical performance, and high water retention capacity are highly desired. In this study, a tough double-network hydrogel is designed using the first network of a polyion complex containing lanthanide complexes via one-pot polymerization and the second network of a poly (N-hydroxyethyl acrylamide) (PHEAA) obtained by deep eutectic solvent (DES)-assisted introduction and subsequent photopolymerization. In this system, the pH-induced shape memory function and pH-/wavelength-dependent fluorescence allow the use of the prepared hydrogel as a dual-encryption platform. Owing to its high response reversibility, the hydrogel-based platform exhibits both a high security level and the advantages of rewritability, reprogrammability, and reusability. Additionally, the excellent mechanical properties and water retention capacity owing to the solvent exchange process involving the low-volatility solvent DES and the resulting introduction of the second network of PHEAA offer high practical application value for the hydrogel-based dual encryption platform, demonstrating its potential for information security protection.

Intelligent Eucommia ulmoides Rubber/Ionomer Blends with Thermally Activated Shape Memory and Self-Healing Properties

Intelligent Eucommia ulmoides rubber (EUR) and ionomer Surlyn resin (SR) blends were prepared and studied in this manuscript. This is the first paper to combine EUR with SR to prepare blends with both the shape memory effect and self-healing capability. The mechanical, curing, thermal, shape memory and self-healing properties were studied by a universal testing machine, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), respectively. Experimental results showed that the increase in ionomer content not only improved mechanical and shape memory properties but also endowed the compounds with excellent self-healing ability under the appropriate environmental conditions. Notably, the self-healing efficiency of the composites reached 87.41%, which is much higher than the efficiency of other covalent cross-linking composites. Therefore, these novel shape memory and self-healing blends can expand the use of natural Eucommia ulmoides rubber, such as in special medical devices, sensors and actuators.

A UV-induced self-reinforced hydrogel based on in situ hydrophobic aggregation of strained 1,2-dithiolane rings

A novel responsive hydrogel exhibiting self-reinforcement and self-healing capacity was developed based on the hydrophobic aggregation of strained 1,2-dithiolane rings. Oligomerization of 1,2-dithiolane within hydrophobic domains under UV irradiation not only reinforced the hydrogel but also maintained its dynamic cross-linked nature by converting the intraring dynamic S-S bond to an outer one.

Recent advances in conductive hydrogels: classifications, properties, and applications

Hydrogel-based conductive materials for smart wearable devices have attracted increasing attention due to their excellent flexibility, versatility, and outstanding biocompatibility. This review presents the recent advances in multifunctional conductive hydrogels for electronic devices. First, conductive hydrogels with different components are discussed, including pure single network hydrogels based on conductive polymers, single network hydrogels with additional conductive additives (i.e., nanoparticles, nanowires, and nanosheets), double network hydrogels based on conductive polymers, and double network hydrogels with additional conductive additives. Second, conductive hydrogels with a variety of functionalities, including self-healing, super toughness, self-growing, adhesive, anti-swelling, antibacterial, structural color, hydrophobic, anti-freezing, shape memory and external stimulus responsiveness are introduced in detail. Third, the applications of hydrogels in flexible devices are illustrated (i.e., strain sensors, supercapacitors, touch panels, triboelectric nanogenerator, bioelectronic devices, and robot). Next, the current challenges facing hydrogels are summarized. Finally, an imaginative but reasonable outlook is given, which aims to drive further development in the future.

Highly stretchable ionically crosslinked acrylate elastomers inspired by polyelectrolyte complexes

Dynamic bonds are a powerful approach to tailor the mechanical properties of elastomers and introduce shape-memory, self-healing, and recyclability. Among the library of dynamic crosslinks, electrostatic interactions among oppositely charged ions have been shown to enable tough and resilient elastomers and hydrogels. In this work, we investigate the mechanical properties of ionically crosslinked ethyl acrylate-based elastomers assembled from oppositely charged copolymers. Using both infrared and Raman spectroscopy, we confirm that ionic interactions are established among polymer chains. We find that the glass transition temperature of the complex is in between the two individual copolymers, while the complex demonstrates higher stiffness and more recovery, indicating that ionic bonds can strengthen and enhance recovery of these elastomers. We compare cycles to increasing strain levels at different strain rates, and hypothesize that at fast strain rates ionic bonds dynamically break and reform while entanglements do not have time to slip, and at slow strain rates ionic interactions are disrupted and these entanglements slip significantly. Further, we show that a higher ionic to neutral monomer ratio can increase the stiffness, but its effect on recovery is minimal. Finally, taking advantage of the versatility of acrylates, ethyl acrylate is replaced with the more hydrophilic 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, and the latter is shown to exhibit better recovery and self-healing at a cost of stiffness and strength. The design principles uncovered for these easy-to-manufacture polyelectrolyte complex-inspired bulk materials can be broadly applied to tailor elastomer stiffness, strength, inelastic recovery, and self-healing for various applications.

Ion-cluster-mediated ultrafast self-healable ionoconductors for reconfigurable electronics

Implementing self-healing capabilities in a deformable platform is one of the critical challenges for achieving future wearable electronics with high durability and reliability. Conventional systems are mostly based on polymeric materials, so their self-healing usually proceeds at elevated temperatures to promote chain flexibility and reduce healing time. Here, we propose an ion-cluster-driven self-healable ionoconductor composed of rationally designed copolymers and ionic liquids. After complete cleavage, the ionoconductor can be repaired with high efficiency (∼90.3%) within 1 min even at 25 °C, which is mainly attributed to the dynamic formation of ion clusters between the charged moieties in copolymers and ionic liquids. By taking advantages of the superior self-healing performance, stretchability (∼1130%), non-volatility (over 6 months), and ability to be easily shaped as desired through cutting and re-assembly protocol, reconfigurable, deformable light-emitting electroluminescent displays are successfully demonstrated as promising electronic platforms for future applications.

Implementing high-performance self-healing capability is one urgent challenge for deformable electronics. Here, the authors report ultra-fast ion cluster-mediated ionoconductors and their successful applications in future reconfigurable electronics.

β-Cyclodextrin-Based Ultrahigh Stretchable, Flexible, Electro- and Pressure-Responsive, Adhesive, Transparent Hydrogel as Motion Sensor

In the present work, a multiple-stimuli-responsive hydrogel has been synthesized via polymerization of acrylamide (AAm) and N-hydroxy methyl acrylamide (HMAm) on β-cyclodextrin (β-CD). The synthesized hydrogel β-CD-g-(pAAm/pHMAm) exhibited various striking features like ultrahigh stretchability (>6000%), flexibility, stab resistivity, self-recoverability, electroresponsiveness, pressure-responsiveness, adhesiveness, and high transparency (>90%). Besides, the hydrogel has demonstrated enhanced biocompatibility, UV resistance, and thermoresponsive shape memory behaviors. On the basis of these attractive characteristics of the hydrogel, a flexible pressure sensor for the real-time monitoring of human motion with superior biocompatibility and transparency was fabricated. Moreover, due to the nanofibrillar surface morphology of the β-CD-g-(pAAm/pHMAm) hydrogel, the sensor based on the gel exhibited high sensitivity (0.053 kPa^-1 for 0-3.3 kPa). The flexible sensor demonstrates very fast response time (130 ms-210 ms) with adequate stability (5000 cycles). Interestingly, the sensor can rapidly sense both robust (index finger and wrist) motions as well as tiny (swallowing and phonation) physiological actions. In addition, this adhesive hydrogel patch also acts as a potential carrier for the sustained topical release of (∼80.8% in 48 h) the antibiotic drug gentamicin sulfate.

Strong, tough, anti-freezing, non-drying and sensitive ionic sensor based on fully physical cross-linked double network hydrogel

Ionic conductive double network (DN) sensors have attracted increasing attention in wearable electronic devices. However, their low mechanical and sensing properties as well as poor moisture retention and freezing resistance restrict severely their applications. Herein, we synthesized a fully physical cross-linked poly (N-hydroxymethyl acrylamide)/agar/ethylene glycol (PHA/Agar/EG) ionic conductive DN hydrogel exhibiting high strength and toughness, fast self-recovery, good fatigue resistance and good self-healing. Agar could form a physical network via reversible sol-gel transition, and interact with physical cross-linked poly (N-hydroxymethyl acrylamide) and sodium chloride (NaCl) via hydrogen bonds and salting-out effect, respectively. Meanwhile, ethylene glycol and NaCl improved the mechanical properties, long-lasting moisture retention and anti-freezing ability. The PHA/Agar/EG gel-based flexible sensor possessed excellent long-lasting and fatigue resistant sensing properties, and could monitor various human activities stably and sensitively. Therefore, this work would provide a simple and promising strategy to fabricate flexible sensors with integrated high performances for smart wearable devices.

Mechanically Strong, Autonomous Self-Healing, and Fully Recyclable Silicone Coordination Elastomers with Unique Photoluminescent Properties

The combination of excellent mechanical performances, high reprocess efficiency, and wide-range tunability for functional dynamic siloxane materials is a challenging subject. Herein, the fabrication of mechanically strong, autonomous self-healing, and fully recyclable silicone elastomers with unique photoluminescent properties by coordination of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) containing coordination bonding motifs with Zn²⁺ ions is reported. Salicylaldimine groups, which are introduced into the polysiloxane backbone via mild Schiff-base reaction, coordinate with zinc ions to form elastomeric networks The obtained supramolecular elastomers have excellent mechanical properties, with the optimized tensile strength up to 10.0 MPa, which is unprecedented among the reported thermoplastic polysiloxane-based elastomers. Both mechanical properties and stress relaxation kinetics are tunable via adjusting the length of PDMS segments or the molar ratio of metal versus salicylaldimine. Furthermore, these elastomers can be conveniently healed and recycled to regain their original mechanical properties and integrity under mild conditions. In addition, this new kind of polysiloxane also exhibits coordination-enhanced fluorescence, showing great promise for preparing photoluminescent elastomers or coatings.