Photo-Cross-Linking Polymersome Nanoreactors with Size-Selective Permeability

Rational Design of Self-Reporting Polymersomes for the Controlled Release of Sulfur Dioxide

As a new member of the gaseous regulators, sulfur dioxide (SO2) plays a crucial role in many biological activities. Recent studies have shown that SO2 is capable of inducing cancer cell apoptosis by regulating intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), allowing SO2 to serve as an efficient therapeutic agent. Although various polymer-based platforms have presented great potential for the controlled release of SO2, most of the systems are incapable of monitoring the intracellular generation of SO2. In this work we present the rational design of SO2-releasing biodegradable polymersomes, accompanied by a self-reporting property. The polymersome consists of a hydrophilic block of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and a hydrophobic segment of poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC)-based SO2 donors. The polymersomes not only exhibit good SO2-releasing performance upon treatment with glutathione (GSH), but can also regulate the fluorescence change of the system, offering a good platform for real-time monitoring of the intracellular production of SO2. Significantly, the in vitro and in vivo studies indicate the potential for exploitation of these polymersomes as antitumor agents. We expect that incorporating both the SO2-releasing capacity and self-reporting feature within a polymersome system will provide a unique opportunity for the development of intelligent gas nanovehicles.

Polymersomes as the Next Attractive Generation of Drug Delivery Systems: Definition, Synthesis and Applications

Polymersomes are artificial nanoparticles formed by the self-assembly process of amphiphilic block copolymers composed of hydrophobic and hydrophilic blocks. They can encapsulate hydrophilic molecules in the aqueous core and hydrophobic molecules within the membrane. The composition of block copolymers can be tuned, enabling control of characteristics and properties of formed polymersomes and, thus, their application in areas such as drug delivery, diagnostics, or bioimaging. The preparation methods of polymersomes can also impact their characteristics and the preservation of the encapsulated drugs. Many methods have been described, including direct hydration, thin film hydration, electroporation, the pH-switch method, solvent shift method, single and double emulsion method, flash nanoprecipitation, and microfluidic synthesis. Considering polymersome structure and composition, there are several types of polymersomes including theranostic polymersomes, polymersomes decorated with targeting ligands for selective delivery, stimuli-responsive polymersomes, or porous polymersomes with multiple promising applications. Due to the shortcomings related to the stability, efficacy, and safety of some therapeutics in the human body, polymersomes as drug delivery systems have been good candidates to improve the quality of therapies against a wide range of diseases, including cancer. Chemotherapy and immunotherapy can be improved by using polymersomes to deliver the drugs, protecting and directing them to the exact site of action. Moreover, this approach is also promising for targeted delivery of biologics since they represent a class of drugs with poor stability and high susceptibility to in vivo clearance. However, the lack of a well-defined regulatory plan for polymersome formulations has hampered their follow-up to clinical trials and subsequent market entry.

Porous Polymersomes as Carriers for Silver Nanoparticles and Nanoclusters: Advantages of Compartmentalization for Antimicrobial Usage

The global threat to public health posed by antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections requires the exploration of innovative approaches. Nanomaterials, particularly silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and nanoclusters (AgNCs), have emerged as potential solutions to address the pressing issue of a bacterial healthcare crisis. However, the high cytotoxicity levels and low stability associated with AgNPs and AgNCs limit their applicability. To overcome these challenges, AgNCs and AgNPs were synthesized in the presence of porous polymersomes, resulting in a compartmentalized system that enhances stability, reduces cytotoxicity, and maintains high antimicrobial activity. The encapsulated particles exhibit a distribution of silver components on both the surface and the core, which is confirmed through the analysis of surface charge and center of mass. Moreover, our investigation demonstrates improved stability of the nanoparticles and nanoclusters upon entrapment in the porous system, as evidenced by the ion release assay. The antimicrobial effectiveness of porous polymersomes containing AgNPs and AgNCs was demonstrated by visualizing the biofilms and quantifying the penetration depth. Furthermore, cytotoxicity studies showed that compartmentalization increases cell compatibility for AgNC-based systems, showcasing the many advantages this system holds.

Polymeric Microreactors with pH-Controlled Spatial Localization of Cascade Reactions

Lipid and polymer vesicles provide versatile means of creating systems that mimic the architecture of cells. However, these constructs cannot mimic the adaptive compartmentalization observed in cells, where the assembly and disassembly of subcompartments are dynamically modulated by environmental cues. Here, we describe a fully polymeric microreactor with a coacervate-in-vesicle architecture that exhibits an adaptive response to pH. The system was fabricated by microfluidic generation of semipermeable biomimetic polymer vesicles within 1 min using oleyl alcohol as the oil phase. The polymersomes allowed for the diffusion of protons and substrates acting as external signals. Using this method, we were able to construct adaptive microreactors containing internal polyelectrolyte-based catalytic organelles capable of sequestering and localizing enzymes and reaction products in a dynamic process driven by an external stimulus. This approach provides a platform for the rapid and efficient construction of robust adaptive microreactors that can be used in catalysis, biosensing, and cell mimicry.