Depth-Resolved Structure Analysis of Cylindrical Microdomain in Block Copolymer Thin Film by Grazing-Incidence Small-Angle X-ray Scattering Utilizing Low-Energy X-rays

Structural evolution and nanodomain formation in blend films of a block copolymer and homopolymer

This study explores the concurrent formation of surface perforations, parallel cylinders, and double gyroids in symmetric PS-b-PMMA/hPS blend films during isothermal annealing at 205 and 240 °C. By controlling the weight fraction ratio of PS-b-PMMA to hPS at 75/25, we systematically examined the impact of film thickness and annealing temperature on nanodomain development. Using in situ GISAXS and ex situ SEM, we observed that thin films rapidly formed surface perforations and underlying parallel cylinders at both annealing temperatures. For thicker films, annealing at 205 °C resulted in the coexistence of surface perforations and parallel cylinders, while annealing at 240 °C yielded the additional formation of double gyroids besides surface perforations and parallel cylinders. Furthermore, the double gyroids, which grew independently with {121}DG planes parallel to the substrate, did not exhibit in-plane epitaxial relationships with the other structures. These findings highlight the critical role of annealing temperature and film thickness in directing nanodomain morphology, offering new insights for the design of nanostructured materials with tailored properties.

Carbohydrate-based block copolymers with sub-10 nm face-centered cubic nanostructures for low-power-consuming and ultraviolet light-triggered synaptic phototransistors

Addressing environmental concerns and producing sustainable and environmentally friendly electronic devices with low power consumption poses a significant challenge. This study introduces phototransistor devices employing morphologically controlled block copolymers based on maltotriose, maltoheptaose, and β-cyclodextrin as polymer electrets. Ordered self-assembled morphologies can be achieved by utilizing microwave radiation for rapid annealing (within 5 s) with optimized annealing conditions. Herein, face-centered cubic (FCC), vertical, and mixed cylindrical nanostructures are reported. The resulting well-defined morphologies play a pivotal role in enhancing the electron-trapping capability of the block copolymers and facilitating charge carrier transport between the electret and semiconducting layers. Consequently, the phototransistor memory manifests exceptional performance, featuring stability and endurance. Intriguingly, the cavity of β-cyclodextrin provides a stable environment for the trapped charges, leading to a larger memory window than other block copolymers. On the other hand, a device consisting of MT-b-PS exhibited superior current contrast exceeding 106 even under a low drain voltage of -1 V, attributed to sub-10 nm FCC nanostructures. Furthermore, this phototransistor device successfully emulated the synaptic functions of sensing, learning, and short- and long-term memory in the human brain, along with a low energy consumption of 0.312 fJ. Hence, this report opens the pathways for developing promising bio-based electronic devices.

Si-Containing Reverse-Gradient Block Copolymer for Inorganic Pattern Amplification in EUV Lithography

Although extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) has emerged as a leading technology for achieving high quality sub-10 nm patterns, the insufficient pattern height of photoresist patterns remains a challenge. Directed self-assembly (DSA) of block copolymers (BCPs) is expected to be a complementary technology for EUVL due to its ability to form periodic nanostructures. However, for a combination with EUV patterns, it is essential to develop advanced BCP systems that are suited to inorganic-containing EUV photoresists and offer improved resolution limits, pattern quality, and etch resistance. Here, we report a reverse-gradient BCP system, poly[(styrene-gradient-pentafluorostyrene)-b-4-tert-butyldimetilsiloxystyrene] [P(S-g-PFS)-b-P4BDSS] BCP, which enables universally vertically oriented lamellae even in the absence of a neutral layer, while also containing a Si-containing block with high etch resistance. The gradient block, characterized by a gradual compositional transition from the block junction to the tail, plays a crucial role in creating an adequate surface energy contrast that energetically drives the formation of perpendicular lamellae without neutral layer. When used as a pattern height enhancement layer in EUVL, a high aspect ratio (3.29) of patterns was achieved, thereby offering a supplementary solution for next-generation EUVL.

Epitaxial Growth of Surface Perforations on Parallel Cylinders in Terraced Films of Block Copolymer/Homopolymer Blends

Due to incommensurability between initial thickness and interdomain distance, thermal annealing inevitably produces relief surface terraces (islands and holes) of various morphologies in thin films of block copolymers. We have demonstrated three kinds of surface terraces in blend films: polygrain terraces with diffuse edges, polygrain terraces with step edges, and pseudo-monograin terraces with island coarsening. The three morphologies were obtained by three different thermal histories, respectively. The thermal histories were imposed on blend films, which were prepared by mixing a homopolystyrene (hPS, 6.1 kg/mol) with a weakly segregated, symmetry polystyrene-block poly(methyl methacrylate) (PS-b-PMMA, 42 kg/mol) followed by spin coating. At a given weight-fraction ratio of PS-b-PMMA/hPS = 75/25, the interior of the blend films forms parallel cylinders. Nevertheless, the surface of the blend films is always dominated by a skin layer of perforations, which epitaxially grow on top of parallel cylinders. By oxygen plasma etching at various time intervals to probe interior nanodomains, the epitaxial relationship between surface perforations and parallel cylinders has been identified by a scanning electron microscope.

Molecular-weight effects of a homopolymer on the AB- and ABC-stacks of perforations in block copolymer/homopolymer films

We have demonstrated the molecular-weight effects of adding homopolystyrene (hPS) on the evolution of perforated layers and double gyroids in polystyrene-block-poly(methyl methacrylate)-based films during isothermal annealing. Two homopolystyrenes of 2.8 and 17 kg mol-1 were used. To prepare blend films, PS-b-PMMA and hPSx (x: 2.8 or 17) were mixed at a weight-fraction ratio of 75/25 in toluene and then spin-coated at SiOx/Si. Spin coating inevitably produced films with thick edges at the periphery of the substrate. The structural evolution of the spun films was in situ characterized by grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS). The annealed films were then characterized using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). We found that thin middle regions behaved differently from thick beads for the films. The middle of the blend films mainly formed perforated layers with different spatial orders and orientations, depending on the molecular weight of added hPS chains. Hexagonally perforated layers quickly formed at 205 °C for PS-b-PMMA/hPS2.8 films. However, when hPS17 was used instead of hPS2.8, perforated layers formed with defects in PS-b-PMMA/hPS17 films annealed at 205 °C. Annealing at 240 °C improved the spatial order and orientation of perforated layers for a PS-b-PMMA/hPS17 film. Nevertheless, annealing at 240 °C inversely depressed the in-plane spatial order of perforated layers for a PS-b-PMMA/hPS2.8 film. The depression in the in-plane spatial order is ascribed to a dilution effect of added short chains. Compared to the middle regions, the thick beads went through several metastable phases, such as perpendicularly oriented perforated layers and double gyroids.

Morphologies of Surface Perforations and Parallel Cylinders Coexisting in Terraced Films of Block Copolymer/Homopolymer Blends with Oxygen Plasma Etching

This study has demonstrated how oxygen plasma etching carves surface structures for thin films of polystyrene-block-poly(methyl methacrylate)/homopolystyrene blends. By tuning the weight-fraction ratio, blend films form perforations and cylinders on the SiOx/Si substrate. Since perforations exist only on the free surface and substrate interface, short exposure to oxygen plasma to quickly etch the PMMA component produces distorted hexagonal arrays of nanodots on the free surface. The interior of the blend films forms polygrain micro-structures composed of parallel cylinders with an in-plane random orientation. Oxygen plasma etching imposed on the fractured surfaces results in five morphologies: (i) distorted hexagonal arrays of nanoholes, (ii) layer-by-layer stacks, (iii) zigzag-like arrays, (iv) intertwined rectangular arrays of nanodots and nanoholes, and (v) intertwined parallelogram arrays of nanodots and nanoholes. The morphologies suggest synergic effects of grain orientations, stresses, spatial confinement, local segregation of chains, and etching kinetics on the terraced films with oxygen plasma etching.

Recent Experimental Advances in Characterizing the Self-Assembly and Phase Behavior of Polypeptoids

Polypeptoids are a family of synthetic peptidomimetic polymers featuring N-substituted polyglycine backbones with large chemical and structural diversity. Their synthetic accessibility, tunable property/functionality, and biological relevance make polypeptoids a promising platform for molecular biomimicry and various biotechnological applications. To gain insight into the relationship between the chemical structure, self-assembly behavior, and physicochemical properties of polypeptoids, many efforts have been made using thermal analysis, microscopy, scattering, and spectroscopic techniques. In this review, we summarize recent experimental investigations that have focused on the hierarchical self-assembly and phase behavior of polypeptoids in bulk, thin film, and solution states, highlighting the use of advanced characterization tools such as in situ microscopy and scattering techniques. These methods enable researchers to unravel multiscale structural features and assembly processes of polypeptoids over a wide range of length and time scales, thereby providing new insights into the structure-property relationship of these protein-mimetic materials.

Impact of the Composition of Alcohol/Water Dispersion on the Proton Transport and Morphology of Cast Perfluorinated Sulfonic Acid Ionomer Thin Films

The dispersion of perfluorinated sulfonic acid ionomers in catalyst inks is an important factor that controls the performance of catalyst layers in membrane electrode assemblies of polymer electrolyte fuel cells. Herein, the effects of water/alcohol compositions on the morphological properties and proton transport are examined by grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering, grazing incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The thin films cast by a high water/alcohol ratio Nafion dispersion have high proton conductivity and well-defined hydrophilic/hydrophobic phase separation, which indicates that the proton conductivity and morphology of the Nafion thin films are strongly influenced by the state of dispersion. This finding is expected to further understand the morphology and proton transport properties of Nafion thin films with different water/alcohol ratios, which has implications for the performance of the Pt/Nafion interface.

Morphology Changes in Perfluorosulfonated Ionomer from Thickness and Thermal Treatment Conditions

The morphological changes of Nafion thin films with thicknesses from 10 to 200 nm on Pt substrate with various annealing histories (unannealed to 240 °C) were systematically investigated using grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) and grazing incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS). The results revealed that the hydrophilic ionic domain and hydrophobic backbone in Nafion thin films changed significantly when the annealing treatment exceeded the cluster transition temperature, which decreased proton conductivity, due to the constrained hydrophilic/hydrophobic phase separation, and increased the crystalline-rich domain. This research contributed to the understanding of ionomer thermal stability in the catalyst layer, which is subjected to thermal annealing during the hot-pressing process.

Improving grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering-computed tomography images by total variation minimization

Grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering coupled with computed tomography (CT) has enabled the visualization of the spatial distribution of nanostructures in thin films. In this study, to optimize the CT image quality, total variation regularization is introduced to minimize sinogram image noise and artifacts.

Grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) coupled with computed tomography (CT) has enabled the visualization of the spatial distribution of nanostructures in thin films. 2D GISAXS images are obtained by scanning along the direction perpendicular to the X-ray beam at each rotation angle. Because the intensities at the q positions contain nanostructural information, the reconstructed CT images individually represent the spatial distributions of this information (e.g. size, shape, surface, characteristic length). These images are reconstructed from the intensities acquired at angular intervals over 180°, but the total measurement time is prolonged. This increase in the radiation dosage can cause damage to the sample. One way to reduce the overall measurement time is to perform a scanning GISAXS measurement along the direction perpendicular to the X-ray beam with a limited interval angle. Using filtered back-projection (FBP), CT images are reconstructed from sinograms with limited interval angles from 3 to 48° (FBP-CT images). However, these images are blurred and have a low image quality. In this study, to optimize the CT image quality, total variation (TV) regularization is introduced to minimize sinogram image noise and artifacts. It is proposed that the TV method can be applied to downsampling of sinograms in order to improve the CT images in comparison with the FBP-CT images.

Depth-Resolved Characterization of Perylenediimide Side-Chain Polymer Thin Film Structure Using Grazing-Incidence Wide-Angle X-ray Diffraction with Tender X-rays

Polymers with a perylenediimide (PDI) side chain (PAc12PDI) consist of two kinds of crystalline structures with various types of orientations in a thin film. Understanding the population of the microcrystalline structure and its orientation along the thickness is strongly desired. Grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray diffraction (GIWAXD) measurements with hard X-rays, which are generally chosen as λ = 0.1 nm, are a powerful tool to evaluate the molecular aggregation structure in thin films. A depth-resolved analysis for the outermost surface of the polymeric materials using conventional GIWAXD measurements, however, has limitations on depth resolution because the X-ray penetration depth dramatically increases above the critical angle. Meanwhile, tender X-rays (λ = 0.5 nm) have the potential advantage that the penetration depth gradually increases above the critical angle, leading to precise characterization for the population of crystallite distribution along the thickness. The population of the microcrystalline states in the PAc12PDI thin film was precisely characterized utilizing GIWAXD measurements using tender X-rays. The outermost surface of the PAc12PDI thin film is occupied by a monoclinic lattice with a = 2.38 nm, b = 0.74 nm, c = 5.98 nm, and β = 108.13°, while maintaining the c-axis perpendicular to the substrate surface. Additionally, the presence of solid substrate controls the formation of the crystallite with unidirectional orientation.

GISAXS Analysis of the In-Depth Morphology of Thick PS-b-PMMA Films

The morphological evolution of cylinder-forming poly(styrene)-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) block copolymer (BCP) thick films treated at high temperatures in the rapid thermal processing (RTP) machine was monitored by means of in-depth grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS). The use of this nondisruptive technique allowed one to reveal the formation of buried layers composed of both parallel- and perpendicular-oriented cylinders as a function of the film thickness (24 ≤ h ≤ 840 nm) and annealing time (0 ≤ t ≤ 900 s). Three distinct behaviors were observed depending on the film thickness. Up to h ≤ 160 nm, a homogeneous film consisting of perpendicular-oriented cylinders is observed. When h is between 160 and 700 nm, a decoupling process between both the air-BCP and substrate-BCP interfaces takes place, leading to the formation of mixed orientations (parallel and perpendicular) of the cylinders. Finally, for h > 700 nm, the two interfaces are completely decoupled, and the formation of a superficial layer of about 50 nm composed of perpendicular cylinders is observed. Furthermore, the through-film morphology affects the nanodomain long-range order, which substantially decreases in correspondence with the beginning of the decoupling process. When the thick samples are exposed to longer thermal treatments, an increase in the long-range order of the nanodomains occurs, without any sensible variation of the thickness of the superficial layer.

Rapid ordering of block copolymer thin films

Block-copolymers self-assemble into diverse morphologies, where nanoscale order can be finely tuned via block architecture and processing conditions. However, the ultimate usage of these materials in real-world applications may be hampered by the extremely long thermal annealing times-hours or days-required to achieve good order. Here, we provide an overview of the fundamentals of block-copolymer self-assembly kinetics, and review the techniques that have been demonstrated to influence, and enhance, these ordering kinetics. We discuss the inherent tradeoffs between oven annealing, solvent annealing, microwave annealing, zone annealing, and other directed self-assembly methods; including an assessment of spatial and temporal characteristics. We also review both real-space and reciprocal-space analysis techniques for quantifying order in these systems.

Evaluations of Mesogen Orientation in Thin Films of Polyacrylate with Cyanobiphenyl Side Chain

The orientation behavior of mesogens in a polyacrylate with cyanobiphenyl (CB) side chain in thin films was investigated in detail by UV-vis absorption spectroscopy and grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GI-SAXS) measurements using both high-energy X-rays of Cu Kα line (λ = 0.154 nm) and low-energy synchrotron X-rays (λ = 0.539 nm). By changing the film thickness ranging 7-200 nm, it is concluded that the planar orientation is predominant for thin films with thickness below 10-15 nm. This planar mesogen orientation near the substrate surface coexists with the homeotropically aligned CB mesogens in films thicker than 30 nm. For the thinnest 7 nm film, the planar orientation is unexpectedly lost, which is in consort with a disordering of smectic layer structure. Peculiar orienting characteristics of CB mesogen are suggested, which probably stem from the tendency to form an antiparallel arrangement of mesogens due to the strong dipole moment of the terminal cyano group.

Free Surface Command Layer for Photoswitchable Out-of-Plane Alignment Control in Liquid Crystalline Polymer Films

To date, reversible alignment controls of liquid crystalline materials have widely been achieved by photoreactive layers on solid substrates. In contrast, this work demonstrates the reversible out-of-plane photocontrols of liquid crystalline polymer films by using a photoresponsive skin layer existing at the free surface. A polymethacrylate containing a cyanobiphenyl side-chain mesogen adopts the planar orientation. Upon blending a small amount of azobenzene-containing side-chain polymer followed by successive annealing, segregation of the azobenzene polymer at the free surface occurs and induces a planar to homeotropic orientation transition of cyanobiphenyl mesogens underneath. By irradiation with UV light, the mesogen orientation turns into the planar orientation. The orientation reverts to the homeotropic state upon visible light irradiation or thermally, and such cyclic processes can be repeated many times. On the basis of this principle, erasable optical patterning is performed by irradiating UV light through a photomask.